Professor Deb Loxton

© 2018 Elsevier Ltd Background: Postnatal care is critical to detect and manage postpartum complications in the early stages as well as to prevent potentially life-threatening health conditions that lead to maternal death. However, postnatal care utilization is persistently low in Ethiopia. The aim of this study is to assess the magnitude and correlates of postnatal care utilization among reproductiveaged women in Kersa district, in eastern Ethiopia. Methods: A community based cross-sectional study was conducted in ten randomly selected sub-districts in Kersa district. Respondents were recruited using systematic random sampling techniques. Data were collected by an interviewer-administered questionnaire using iPads. A total of 1206 respondents¿ data were considered in the analysis. Frequency and percentage distributions of the variables were performed. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were undertaken to identify the predisposing, enabling and need factors associated with postnatal care utilization. An Odds Ratio with 95% confidence interval was used to ascertain the direction and strength of the association. Results: Less than one in thirteen women attended postnatal care after their last delivery in the study community. The multivariate analysis demonstrated that postnatal care utilization is associated with receiving education on maternal health, best friend's use of maternal care, head of the household, and experience of postpartum complications. Receiving education on maternal health (AOR, 2.32; 95% CI: 1.38, 3.89) and best friend's use of maternal care (AOR, 2.41; 95% CI: 1.39, 4.19) were significant predisposing factors that independently predicted postnatal care utilization. Furthermore, head of the household was a significantly associated enabling factor for postnatal care utilization (AOR, 0.24; 95% CI: 0.07, 0.81). The experience of postpartum complications (AOR, 0.10; 95% CI: 0.05, 0.20) was the only need factor that was associated with postnatal care utilization. Conclusion: Postnatal care utilization is extremely low in the study district. Strengthening health education and promotion activities on maternal health, peer education programs within the women's social networks, strengthening women empowerment programs, and women's mobilization to seek postnatal care before the occurrence of complications are essential actions that can improve postnatal care utilization.

© 2018, © 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Australian women use less effective, short-term methods of contraception more often than any other method, despite the availability of much more effective long-acting reversible contraception (LARC). Although research examining the low uptake of LARC among Australian women has increased over the past few years, we still know little about the factors influencing this phenomenon. Using data from semi-structured telephone interviews with 15 Australian women in their 20s, this paper explores contraceptive experience to better understand the non-use of LARC. Findings highlight the ubiquity of the use of the oral contraceptive pill and perceptions of LARC as a more serious contraceptive choice. Among participants, the intrauterine device (IUD) was viewed particularly unfavourably. Furthermore, LARC was shown to be only considered for use after dissatisfaction with shorter-term methods (usually the Pill) if at all. Overall, these findings suggest further education in dispelling myths and discomfort around LARC use, while simultaneously recognising and respecting women¿s decisions to not use LARC methods.

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. Objective: To develop a greater understanding of the motivators of contraceptive method change over time for young Australian women, with a particular interest in long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) use. Method: Free-text comments from the Contraceptive Use, Pregnancy Intention and Decisions (CUPID) Study were used to explore the reasons for contraceptive method change among women who reported one or more contraceptive changes across the three CUPID surveys. Results: 512 women reported making at least one contraceptive method change, with 740 comments explaining these changes between them. Participants reported a multitude of reasons motivating their contraceptive change. Five key themes were developed to explain these motivators: the natural, sexual and fertile body, specific contraceptive characteristics and other important people. Findings suggest that women's decisions to switch or discontinue a contraceptive depended largely on her ability (and desire) to juggle its impact on her sexual, fertile and natural body. Importantly, the transient and fluid nature of contraceptive practices were demonstrated, as the women adjusted their method to suit their needs at the time. Conclusion: Regarding LARC use, these findings suggest that rather than being appealing, the ¿temporarily permanent¿ nature of these methods may be unappealing and incongruent with the needs of some women.

© 2019, Springer-Verlag GmbH Austria, part of Springer Nature. Maternal depression is a potent risk factor for poor child development across a number of domains but the mechanisms of transmission are poorly understood. This study aimed to test competing mediators of the association between pre-conception maternal depression and child psychosocial functioning. In 2016, mothers in the 1973¿1978 cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women¿s Health were asked to be part of the Mothers and their Children¿s Health study and to complete surveys on the health of their three youngest children under 13¿years. The current study includes children aged 0¿12¿years (N = 5532, M = 6.99¿years, SD = 3.22¿years) and their mothers (N = 2917). We used the CESD-10 to measure depression and the PedsQL to measure psychosocial functioning, and used multilevel structural equation modeling to test hypotheses. Pre-conception maternal depression was associated with poorer maternal mental health and parenting after birth. The effect of pre-conception maternal depression was mediated by post-birth maternal depression in children aged 0¿4¿years (unstandardized regression coefficient (B) = - 0.26, 95%CI - 0.38, - 0.13) and children aged 5¿12¿years (B = - 0.25, 95%CI - 0.34, - 0.16), and by post-birth maternal stress (B = - 0.04, 95%CI - 0.08, - 0.01), and parenting (B = - 0.03, 95%CI - 0.04, - 0.02) in children aged 5¿12¿years. Post-birth maternal depression was the strongest mediator. Pre-conception is the optimal time for depression intervention. Post-birth interventions should include a focus on reducing depression and improving negative parenting aspects such as hostility and discipline.

© 2018 Article author(s). Background Although it is known that pregnancy intention impacts contraceptive use, there has been little exploration into the relationship between pregnancy intention and long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) non-use in the Australian context. Methods Semi-structured telephone interviews with a sample of participants from the Contraceptive Use, Pregnancy Intention and Decisions (CUPID) Study were conducted in 2016. Results Of the 59 women contacted, 15 participated in an interview. One theme arising from these interviews is reported here. Results from the analysis suggest that women with ambivalent or unclear plans toward pregnancy were less likely to perceive LARC as a suitable method for them. Conversely, women who clearly intended to avoid pregnancy and who had clear plans for future pregnancy valued these methods, and often framed their future plans for pregnancy within the context of their chosen LARC. Conclusions Findings presented demonstrated the complex relationship between pregnancy intention and contraceptive use. In particular, this study provided insight into the complex notion of pregnancy ambivalence. Dichotomous definitions of pregnancy as intended or unintended were found to be inadequate in encapsulating actual reproductive experiences.

© Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2017. We investigate an actuarial approach to identifying the factors impacting government-funded maternal hospital costs in Australia, with a focus on women who experience adverse birth outcomes. We propose a two-phase modelling methodology that adopts actuarial methods from typical insurance claim cost modelling and extends to other statistical techniques to account for the large volume of covariates available for modelling. Specifically, Classification and Regression Trees and generalised linear mixed models are employed to analyse a data set that links longitudinal survey and administrative data from a large sample of women. The results show that adverse births are a statistically significant risk factor affecting maternal hospital costs in the antenatal and delivery periods. Other significant cost risk factors in the delivery period include mode of delivery, private health insurance status, diabetes, smoking status, area of residence and onset of labour. We demonstrate the efficacy of using actuarial techniques in non-traditional areas and highlight how the results can be used to inform public policy.

© 2016, © Urban Studies Journal Limited 2016. Scant research exists on the patterns of changes in older women¿s housing, and whether and when women transition into residential aged care (RAC). This study aimed to identify groups of women with different housing patterns (latent classes) over time, with a secondary aim to describe socio-demographic and health characteristics of women in each class. We analysed linked data for 9575 women born 1921¿1926 from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Women¿s Health (ALSWH), Australian National Death Index, and Residential Aged Care (RAC) administrative records for the years 1999 through to 2011. Seven distinct housing patterns (classes) were identified over time. Four classes showed a stable pattern: living in a house for most surveys (47.0%), living in a house but with earlier death (13.7%), living in an apartment (12.8%), living in a retirement village (5.8%). One class showed a pattern of downsizing: moving from a house to retirement village (6.6%). Two patterns showed transition: from an apartment or retirement village, to RAC and death (7.8%), and from house to RAC (6.4%). This study provides new evidence about socio-demographic and health influences on housing patterns and entry into residential care in later life. These findings can inform policy and aged care planning for women in later life, by identifying patterns of transition into residential aged care, or alternatively, remaining in the community.

© 2018, © 2018 Taylor & Francis. The current study aims to present the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences and examine the healthcare costs associated with primary, allied, and specialist healthcare services. The Australian Longitudinal Study on Women¿s Health is a general health survey of four nationally representative age cohorts. The current study uses 20¿years of survey and administrative data (1996¿2015) from the cohort born 1973¿1978. Overall, 41% of women indicated at least one category of childhood adversity. The most commonly reported type of childhood adversity was having a household member with a mental illness (16%), with the most commonly reported ACES category being psychological abuse (17%). Women who had experienced adversity in childhood had higher healthcare costs than women who had not experienced adversity. The healthcare costs associated with experiences of adversity in childhood fully justify a comprehensive policy and practice review.

© 2018, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature. In 2014, about 1.5 million pregnancies occurred among HIV-positive women in low and middle-income countries. To pool magnitude and factors associated with unintended pregnancy in women living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa, a systematic search of electronic databases was undertaken in November 2016. Pooling the magnitude of unintended pregnancy reported by 14 studies yielded a crude summary prevalence of 55.9%. The magnitude of unwanted pregnancy and mistimed pregnancy in six studies ranged from 14 to 59 and 9 to 47.2%, respectively. Contraceptive failure was an important factor for many unintended pregnancies. The magnitude of unintended pregnancy was significantly higher in HIV-positive women than for HIV-negative women in three out of six studies. The available evidence suggests that there is a high magnitude of unintended pregnancy in this population. Improving effective contraceptive utilization is thus a priority to address unintended pregnancies and to prevent mother to child transmission of HIV. PROSPERO Number: CRD42016051310.

© 2018, Springer-Verlag GmbH Austria, part of Springer Nature. The perinatal period is a critical time for mental health and is also associated with high health care expenditure. Our previous work has identified a history of poor mental health as the strongest predictor of poor perinatal mental health. This study aims to examine the impact of a history of poor mental health on health care costs during the perinatal period. Data from the 1973¿1978 cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women¿s Health (ALSWH) were linked with a number of administrative datasets including the NSW Admitted Patient Data Collection and Perinatal Data Collection, the Medicare Benefits Scheme and the Pharmaceuticals Benefits Scheme between 2002 and 2011. Even when taking birth type and private health insurance status into account, a history of poor mental health resulted in an average increase of over 11% per birth across the perinatal period. These findings indicate that an investment in prevention and early treatment of poor mental health prior to child bearing may result in a cost saving in the perinatal period and a reduction of the incidence of women experiencing poor perinatal mental health.

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. Purpose: Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome is most commonly seen in women of child bearing age, however little is known about its effects in pregnancy. Method: A systematic review was conducted in March 2015 and updated in February 2018. Medline, Embase, PsychInfo, CINHAL, and the Cochrane Library were searched from database inception. The ClinicalTrials.gov site and bibliographies were searched. MeSH and Emtree headings and keywords included; Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome, Postural Tachycardia Syndrome, and were combined with pregnancy and pregnancy related subject headings and keywords. Searches were limited to English. Eligible articles contained key words within the title and or abstract. Articles were excluded if Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome was not pre-existing. Results: Eleven articles were identified as eligible for inclusion. Studies were appraised using the PRISMA 2009 guidelines. The overall quality of evidence was poor using the NHMRC Evidence Grading Matrix, which was attributed to small sample sizes and mostly observational studies, emphasizing the need for future high quality research. Findings in this review must be used with caution due to the poor quality of the literature available. Conclusions: Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome should not be a contraindication to pregnancy. Symptom course is variable during pregnancy and the post-partum period. Continuing pre-conception medication may help symptoms, with no significant risks reported. Obstetric complications, not Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome, should dictate mode of delivery. Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome did not appear to affect the rate of adverse events. These results are important in determining appropriate management and care in this population.

© 2018 Background: Preventable maternal mortality is related to delays in recognizing the problem, transport to a facility, and receiving appropriate care on arrival. Reducing maternal mortality in low-literacy settings is particularly challenging. In the rural villages of Nepal, the maternal mortality rate is among the highest in the world; the reasons include illiteracy and lack of knowledge of the needs of pregnant women. Culturally, singing and dancing are part of Nepalese daily life and present an opportunity to transmit knowledge of antenatal care and care at birth with a view to reducing the first 2 delays. Objective: We hypothesized that health messages regarding the importance of antenatal care and skilled birth assistance would be effectively transmitted by songs in the limited literacy environment of rural Nepal. Study Design: We randomly grouped 4 rural village development committees comprising 36 villages into 2 (intervention and control) clusters. In the intervention group, local groups were invited to write song lyrics incorporating key health messages regarding antenatal care to accompany popular melodies. The groups presented their songs and dances in a festival organized and judged by the community. The winning songs were performed by the local people in a song and dance progression through the villages, houses, and fields. A wall chart with the key health messages was also provided to each household. Knowledge of household decision makers (senior men and women) was assessed before and after the intervention and at 12 months using a structured questionnaire in all households that also assessed behavior change. Results: Structured interviews were conducted at baseline, immediately postintervention in the control and intervention areas (intervention n = 735 interviews, control n = 775), and at 12 months in the intervention area only (n = 867). Knowledge scores were recorded as the number of correct items out of 36 questions at baseline and postintervention, and of 21 questions at follow-up. Postintervention, test score doubled in the intervention group from a mean of 11.60/36¿22.33/36 (P <.001), with no practically significant change in the control population (17.48/36¿18.26/36). Improvement was greatest among the most illiterate members of the community (6.8/36¿19.8/36, P <.001). At 12 months follow-up, a majority of the participants (63.9%) indicated that they provided information learned from the songs to their neighbors and friends, and 41.3% reported still singing the songs from the intervention. Conclusion: The use of songs bypassed the limitations of literacy in communicating health messages that are key to improving maternal care in this low-literacy rural setting within a developing country. The improvements were maintained without further intervention for 12 months. With appropriate sociocultural adaptation to local contexts, this low-cost method of community education may be applicable to improving maternal health knowledge and behavior change in other low-resource and limited literacy settings that may lead to reductions in maternal mortality.

© 2018 Cambridge University Press. BackgroundPolycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is associated with increased psychological distress in clinical populations. We aimed to assess depression, anxiety and perceived stress in women with and without PCOS in a large community-based sample and investigate the role of stress in contributing to and mediating the relationship between PCOS, depression and anxiety.MethodsA cross-sectional analysis was performed from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Women's Health (ALWSH) comparing women with (n = 478) or without (n = 8134) a self-reported diagnosis of PCOS. Main outcome measures were depression, anxiety and perceived stress measured using validated scales. The Ï¿2 and t tests were used to assess differences between groups. Univariable and multivariable regression were performed to determine factors contributing to each outcome.ResultsWomen reporting PCOS, compared with women not reporting PCOS, reported higher prevalence of depression (27.3% v. 18.8%), anxiety symptoms (50% v. 39.2%) and greater score for perceived stress (1.01 ± 0.03 v. 0.88 ± 0.01). After adjusting for body mass index, infertility and socio-demographic factors, women with PCOS were still more likely to be depressed, anxious and to have a higher level of perceived stress. There was a high-level mediation effect of stress between PCOS and both depression and anxiety.ConclusionCompared with women not reporting PCOS, women reporting PCOS have increased depression, anxiety and perceived stress. Stress may play a role in the association between PCOS, depression and anxiety. Further studies should consider assessment and management of stress in PCOS as it may be relevant for understanding the aetiology and treatment of psychological distress.

© 2017 The Authors Objective: To provide a direct estimate of the risk of admission to permanent residential aged care among older women while accounting for death, according to housing type and other variables. Methods: A competing risk analysis from 8,867 Australian women born 1921¿26, using linked data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH), Residential Aged Care (RAC), and the Australian National Death Index. Results: After accounting for deaths, around 35% of women will be admitted to RAC between ages 73 and 90. The conditional cumulative incidence of admission to RAC was 26.9% if living in a house, compared to 36.0% from an apartment, 43.6% within a retirement village, and 37.1% if living in a mobile home. Each one-year increase in age was associated with a relative 17% increased risk of RAC. Conclusions: Around one-third of women will enter RAC between age 73 and 90. Living in a house had the lowest risk of entering residential aged care over time. Implications for public health: These findings have important implications for planning for aged care services, including the role of housing in delaying admission to residential aged care, and the need for residential care by a high proportion of women towards the end of life.

© 2018, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature. This study examined factors associated with use of government subsidised mental health services by 229,628 men and women from the Sax Institute¿s 45 and Up Study. Logistical regression models assessed use of mental health services by gender and according to level of psychological distress. Approximately equal proportion of men and women had high psychological distress scores (approximately 7%) but only 7% of these men and 11% of these women used services. Use was associated with predisposing (younger age and higher education), enabling (private health insurance) and need factors (higher psychological distress scores). Associations were similar for men and women except urban area of residence, separated/divorced marital status, and smoking were associated with service use for women but not men. Results suggest some inequity in the use of services by those with higher levels of need and further efforts may be required to reach people with higher need but lower service use.

© 2017, Springer Science+Business Media New York. Objective To determine rates of vaginal delivery, emergency caesarean section, and elective caesarean section for first and second births in Australia, and to identify maternal predictors of caesarean section. Methods Data were from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women¿s Health. A total of 5275 women aged 18¿38 years, who had given birth to their first child between 1996 and 2012 were included; 75.0% (n = 3956) had delivered a second child. Mode of delivery for first and second singleton birth(s) was obtained from longitudinal survey data. Socio-demographic, lifestyle, anthropometric and medical history variables were tested as predictors of mode of delivery for first and second births using multinomial logistic regression. Results Caesarean sections accounted for 29.1% (n = 1535) of first births, consisting of 18.2% emergency and 10.9% elective caesareans. Mode of delivery for first and second births was consistent for 85.5% of women (n = 3383) who delivered both children either vaginally or via caesarean section. Higher maternal age and body mass index, short-stature, anxiety and having private health insurance were predictive of caesarean section for first births. Vaginal birth after caesarean section was more common in women who were older, short-statured, or had been overweight or obese for both children, compared to women who had two vaginal deliveries. Conclusions for Practice Rates of caesarean section in Australia are high. Renewed efforts are needed to reduce the number of unnecessary caesarean births, with particular caution applied to first births. Interventions could focus on elective caesareans for women with private health insurance or a history of anxiety.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Aims and objectives: To explore in detail how women perceived their experience of domestic violence and leaving or ending the abuse. This research also examined how service providers identified their professional role in assisting women to end such relationships. Background: Domestic violence against women continues to occur internationally. Reliable statistics are difficult to capture because of inconsistent definitions, contradictory methods of acquiring data and unreported incidents. Design: A qualitative study, undertaken in two phases, was conducted in Australia. Methods: Twelve women who had experienced domestic violence and ended those relationships participated in one semistructured interview (Phase 1). Twenty-five professionals from health, social sciences and law, whose work included assisting women experiencing domestic violence, participated in three focus groups (Phase 2). Thematic analysis guided by a narrative inquiry approach forms the framework for information collection and interpretation of data in this project. Findings: The barriers that impede women from disclosing abuse and taking action to end domestic violence are complex and varied between participants. Women did not always acknowledge or realise their relationship was precarious and often denied or minimised the abuse to cope with the domestic violence. Professionals identified that women did not always identify or acknowledge abuse inherent in their relationship although this delayed the provision of appropriate services. Conclusion: Whether women disclose abuse or deny violence in their relationship, acceptance by service providers and the offer of support is crucial to assisting women in violent relationships. Relevance to clinical practice: It is hoped that the findings may assist health practitioners, including nurses, to provide nonjudgemental support to women experiencing domestic violence whether women acknowledge the abusive relationship or not.

© 2016 Elsevier B.V. Objective To explore the characteristics of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) users in a nationally representative cohort of young Australian women aged 18¿23. Methods Data from 3155 women who responded to a question about their contraceptive use in the previous six months at the baseline Contraceptive Use, Pregnancy Intention and Decisions (CUPID) survey were included. Results 726 (19.1%) women reported LARC use, with the Implanon being the most popular method (n¿=¿478; 65.8%). A history of pregnancy was strongly associated with increased odds of LARC use in the multivariate model (OR¿=¿2.67, 95% CI¿=¿2.11, 3.34, p¿=¿0.001). Comparatively, using contraception for reasons other than pregnancy prevention was associated with decreased odds of LARC use in the multivariate model (period management: OR¿=¿0.74, 95% CI¿=¿0.60, 0.91, p¿=¿0.004, body management: OR¿=¿0.53, 95% CI¿=¿0.37, 0.77, p¿=¿0.001, medical condition: OR¿=¿0.25, 95% CI¿=¿0.09, 0.66, p¿=¿0.005). Highest education and Medicare card status also contributed to the final multivariate model, and were associated with decreased odds of LARC use. Conclusion Reproductive history and reasons for contraceptive use are strong indications of method choice. Promoting LARC as highly effective may not be a sufficient incentive for young women to take up the method when pregnancy prevention may be equal or secondary to their desired non-contraceptive effects.

© 2017 The Authors Objective: To identify the prevalence of bullying among women aged 18¿23 in 2013, and to describe the demographic characteristics, health and risk factors of those who experienced bullying. Methods: Cross-sectional analysis using data from the 1989¿95 cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health, a nationally representative cohort (n=16,801). Results: More than one-quarter of women (28.4%) indicated they had never been bullied, 53.4% reported experiencing bullying in the past and 18.2% indicated that they were recently bullied. Women who had experienced bullying were more likely to have lower levels of education, less likely to be studying or employed, and had more difficulty managing on their income. Women who experienced bullying were more likely to use tobacco or illicit drugs, be overweight or obese and to be sedentary. Even after adjusting for these factors, women who had experienced bullying were at risk of poor physical health, psychological distress, suicidal thoughts and self-harm. Conclusions: This is the first nationally representative study to demonstrate the strong association between being a victim of bullying and health outcomes in a post-school-age population. Implications for public health: The findings highlight the need for interventions for women who have already experienced bullying and are past school age.

© 2016 Nordic Federation of Societies of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. Introduction. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects 9-21% of reproductive- age women. The relations between PCOS, body mass index (BMI) and breastfeeding are unclear. Our aim was to examine breastfeeding in women with and without PCOS and the relation with BMI. Material and methods. This is a cross-sectional study set in the general community. Participants are women, aged 31-36 years, from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH), a large community-based study. Data was analyzed from the first child of respondents to Survey five (2009) reporting at least one live born child. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine factors associated with breastfeeding. The main outcome measures studied were breastfeeding initiation and duration and the main explanatory variables included selfreported PCOS and BMI. Results. Of the 4898 women, 6.5% reported PCOS (95% confidence interval 5.8-7.2%). Median duration of breastfeeding was lower in women reporting PCOS (6 months, range 2-10 months) than in women not reporting PCOS (7 months, range 3-12 months) (p = 0.001). On multivariable regression analysis, there was no association between PCOS and breastfeeding outcomes. However, being overweight or obese was associated with not initiating breastfeeding and with breastfeeding for less than 6 months, after adjusting for confounders. Conclusions. High BMI is negatively associated with breastfeeding, whereas PCOS status per se does not appear to be related to breastfeeding initiation and duration, after adjusting for BMI.

© 2016, © The Author(s) 2016. Data from a national, population-based longitudinal study of Australian women (26-34 years) were analyzed to investigate the association between domestic relocation and multiple explanatory factors, namely intimate partner violence (IPV), metropolitan versus non-metropolitan residence, education, income, housing tenure, number of children, and changes in relationship status. Experience of IPV in the past 12 months was significantly associated with increased odds of domestic relocation. This association remained significant after controlling for age, social support, area of residence, income, number of children, education, and housing situation. Change in relationship status attenuated the association between recent IPV and domestic relocation. Metropolitan versus non-metropolitan residence had no major influence on these results.

© 2015 Taylor & Francis. New developments in female contraceptives allow women increased options for preventing pregnancy, while men¿s options for reversible contraception have not advanced beyond the condom. There has been little discursive exploration of how neoliberal and postfeminist discourses shape women¿s accounts of choosing whether or not to use contraception. Our thematic discourse analysis of 760 free-text responses to a question about contraceptive choice considers the social and political climate that promotes the self-governed woman who freely chooses contraception. We examine the ways in which women formulated and defended their accounts of choice, focusing on the theme of free contraceptive choice that constructed women¿s choices as unconstrained by material, social and political forces. We identify two discursive strategies that underpinned this theme: a woman¿s body, a woman¿s choice and planning parenthood, and explore the ways in which choice was understood as a gendered entitlement and how contraceptive choices were shaped (and constrained) by women¿s plans for parenthood. We discuss the implications of these discursive strategies, and neoliberal and postfeminist discourses, in terms of the disallowance of any contextual, social and structural factors, including the absence of men in the ¿contraceptive economy¿.

© 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. Background: The long-term impact of binge drinking on subsequent depressive symptoms is unclear. The aims were to identify longitudinal patterns of binge drinking and whether binge drinking preceded depressive symptoms in the short-term (1-6 years) and long-term (10-15 years). Methods: Longitudinal data from 1996, 2000 and 2009 mailed surveys of 8,197 women in the 1973-78 cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Latent class analysis was used to identify binge drinking patterns and logistic regression to estimate associations with subsequent depressive symptoms. Results: Five binge drinking trajectories were identified with predicted proportions of women who were very infrequent (24%), fluctuating infrequent (17%), frequent (17%), very frequent (26%) or extremely frequent binge drinkers (16%) between 16 and 21 years. At 22-27 years, depressive symptoms were significantly higher for extremely frequent binge drinkers (31% versus 21% in the short-term; 22% versus 16%-18% in the long-term) than for less frequent bingers. Unadjusted odds of depressive symptoms were 1.70 (95%CI:1.38;2.08) times for extremely frequent binge drinkers than very infrequent bingers and were 1.30 (95%CI:1.04;1.63) after adjusting for demographics, relationships and experience of violence. At 31-36 years, the odds of depressive symptoms were 1.34 (95%CI:1.09-1.64) times for extremely frequent than very infrequent binge drinkers, but were not significant after adjusting for relationships and violence. Conclusions: Extremely frequent binge drinking (more than weekly) in late adolescence appears to elevate the risk of subsequent depressive symptoms in young women in their early twenties and thirties, emphasising the need for preventive strategies to curb binge drinking.

© 2016 Chojenta et al. Purpose While previous studies have identified a range of potential risk factors for postnatal depression (PND), none have examined a comprehensive set of risk factors at a population-level using data collected prospectively. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between a range of factors and PND and to construct a model of the predictors of PND. Methods Data came from 5219 women who completed Survey 5 of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health in 2009 and reported giving birth to a child. Results Over 15% of women reported experiencing PND with at least one of their children. The strongest positive associations were for postnatal anxiety (OR = 13.79,95%CI = 10.48,18.13) and antenatal depression (OR = 9.23,95%CI = 6.10,13.97). Positive associations were also found for history of depression and PND, low SF-36 Mental Health Index, emotional distress during labour, and breastfeeding for less than six months. Conclusions Results indicate that understanding a woman's mental health history plays an important role in the detection of those who are most vulnerable to PND. Treatment and management of depression and anxiety earlier in life and during pregnancy may have a positive impact on the incidence of PND.

© 2016 CSIRO. Little research examining qualities of contraception that make them attractive or unattractive to users, particularly young women, exists. The aim of this study is to systemically review the evidence regarding desirable and undesirable qualities of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC), including intrauterine devices, the implant and the injection, as perceived by women. Five electronic databases were searched in May 2015 using terms related to LARC and method preference or decision-making. Studies were included if they concerned women aged 18-23 years from developed countries and reported on perceived positive or negative qualities of LARC. Thirty articles were deemed relevant. Five key themes emerged under which qualities were categorised; including: (1) impact on bleeding; (2) impact on the body; (3) device-specific characteristics; (4) general characteristics; and (5) perceptions and misbeliefs. Fit and forget, high efficacy and long-term protection were considered the top desirable qualities of LARC. Undesirable qualities varied among the LARC methods; however, irregular bleeding, painful insertion and removal procedure, weight gain and location in the body were among those most commonly reported. The contraceptive benefits of LARC, including their high efficacy and longevity, are generally considered to be positive qualities by women, while the potential impact of side-effects on the body are considered as negative qualities. This information is crucial in the clinical setting as it provides practitioners with a greater understanding of the qualities women do and do not like about LARC methods. Discussion about these qualities, positive and negative, during consultations about contraception may increase rates of uptake.

Background: Because childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and adult violence are associated with poorer physical and mental health of women, our aim was to investigate the associations between CSA, adult violence experiences and general practice service use and satisfaction in a community sample of Australian women aged 28-33 years. Methods: Data of 9058 women from the 1973-78 cohort who completed Survey 4 of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health were analysed. Results: Logistic regressions conducted indicated that after controlling for demographic variables, women with experiences of lifetime violence were more likely to have higher general practice service use compared to those without violence experiences. CSA was not associated with an increase in service use but was significantly associated with a decrease in service satisfaction. This finding remained significant even when they visited the general practice more frequently. Discussion: Implementing trauma-informed care is suggested as a way to improve the satisfaction of this patient group with complex needs.

Objectives: To examine bias arising from loss to follow-up due to lack of contact. Study Design and Setting: The 1973-1978 cohort of Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health was first surveyed in 1996 and followed up in 2000, 2003, 2006, and 2009. At the 2000 survey, 9,688 women responded (responders), 2,972 could not be contacted, of whom 1,515 responded subsequently (temporary no contact) and 1,457 did not (permanent no contact). Characteristics were compared for these groups at baseline and follow-up in 2003, 2006, or 2009. Relative risk ratios were used to estimate bias. Results: No-contacts were younger, more likely to live in cities, to be less educated and stressed about money than responders. No-contacts were more likely to be in de facto relationships, separated, divorced, or widowed, to have experienced partner violence and be smokers. Compared with temporary no contact, permanent no contact were less educated, less likely to be studying or employed. Despite differences in prevalence estimates, relative odds ratios were close to one and had confidence intervals that included one, indicating little effect of bias. Conclusion: Although various characteristics were related to loss to follow-up, the relative risks estimates did not indicate serious bias due to loss to follow-up in this cohort of young women.

Introduction and Aims: To examine women's drinking behaviour relative to Australian guidelines and identify associated factors over the lifespan. Design and Methods: Data came from three prospective cohorts of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health aged 18-23 (n=14247), 45-50 (n=13715) and 70-75 years (n=12432) when first surveyed in 1996. The same women were re-surveyed at roughly 3-year intervals until 2012. At each survey, four drinking behaviours were based on two guidelines: long-term drinking (no more than two standard drinks per day) and episodic drinking (no more than four standard drinks on an occasion): (i) no risk (within both guidelines); (ii) low episodic risk (less than once a month); high episodic risk (at least once a month); long-term risk (more than two drinks per day regardless of episodic drinking). Results: No risk drinking increased with age, low episodic risk drinking remained almost constant between ages 18 and 39, and high episodic risk drinking declined rapidly. Few women drank at long-term risk. Factors associated with risky drinking varied with age; however, being a past or current smoker consistently increased the risk, and risks for smokers increased with age. Risky drinking was less likely to be practised by women providing care and needing help with daily tasks, or by pregnant women and those living with children. Discussion and Conclusions: Risky drinking behaviour should be addressed in younger women and in those who smoke. Interventions to reduce risky drinking, possibly in combination with reducing smoking, could be offered through general practice centres.

Relatively little is known about the extent to which young adults use the Internet as a health information resource and whether there are factors that distinguish between those who do and do not go online for health information. Objective: The aim was to identify the sociodemographic, physical, mental, and reproductive health factors associated with young women's use of the Internet for health information. Methods: We used data from 17,069 young women aged 18-23 years who participated in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate the association between sociodemographic, physical, mental, and reproductive health factors associated with searching the Internet for health information. Results: Overall, 43.54% (7433/17,069) of women used the Internet for health information. Women who used the Internet had higher odds of regular urinary or bowel symptoms (OR 1.44, 95% CI 1.36-1.54), psychological distress (very high distress: OR 1.24, 95% CI 1.13-1.37), self-reported mental health diagnoses (OR 1.16, 95% CI 1.09-1.23), and menstrual symptoms (OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.15-1.36) than women who did not use the Internet for health information. Internet users were less likely to have had blood pressure checks (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.78-0.93) and skin cancer checks (OR 0.90, 95% CI 0.84-0.97) and to have had a live birth (OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.64-0.86) or pregnancy loss (OR 0.88, 95% CI 0.79-0.98) than non-Internet users. Conclusions: Women experiencing "stigmatized" conditions or symptoms were more likely to search the Internet for health information. The Internet may be an acceptable resource that offers "anonymized" information or support to young women and this has important implications for health service providers and public health policy.

© 2015 The Author. Recruitment of young people for epidemiologic research remains challenging, with marked decreases in the effectiveness of face-to-face, mail, and telephone recruitment methods. We report on the implementation and feasibility of an innovative and flexible approach used to recruit participants for a longitudinal cohort study about contraceptive use and pregnancy (the Contraceptive Use, Pregnancy Intention, and Decisions (CUPID) Study). Australian women aged 18-23 years were recruited using a range of online, networking, and offline methods, including social media (primarily Facebook (Facebook Inc., Menlo Park, California; http://www.facebook.com)), face-to-face events, distribution of promotional material, and media releases. Over the course of the 1-year recruitment period (beginning in September 2012), a total of 3,795 eligible women were recruited to complete the online survey, at a cost of approximately A$11 per participant. This sample was found to be broadly representative of the Australian population of women aged 18-23 years in terms of demographic characteristics, with the exception of an overrepresentation of tertiary-educated women (88.7% compared with 72.6%). This study demonstrated that although current recruitment strategies are required to be innovative and flexible in order to engage young people in epidemiologic research, representative samples can be achieved online at reasonable cost.

© 2015 Gresham et al. Background: Many epidemiological studies that focus on pregnancy rely on maternal self-report of perinatal outcomes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the agreement between self-reported perinatal outcomes (gestational hypertension with or without proteinuria, gestational diabetes, premature birth and low birth weight) in a longitudinal study and linked to administrative data (medical records). Methods: Self-reported survey data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health was linked with the New South Wales Perinatal Data Collection. Agreement between the two sources was evaluated using percentage agreement and kappa statistics. Analyses were conducted at two levels by: i) the mother and ii) each individual child. Results: Women reliably self-report their perinatal outcomes (=87 % agreement). Gestational hypertension with or without proteinuria had the lowest level of agreement. Mothers' reports of perinatal outcomes were more reliable when evaluated by child. Restricting the analysis to complete and consistent reporting further strengthened the reliability of the child-specific data, increasing the agreement from >92 to >95 % for all outcomes. Conclusions: The present study offers a high degree of confidence in the use of maternal self-reports of the perinatal outcomes gestational hypertension, gestational diabetes, preterm birth and low birth weight in epidemiological research, particularly when reported on a per child basis. Furthermore self-report offers a cost-effective and convenient method for gathering detailed maternal perinatal histories.

© 2015 Harris et al. Objective: To qualify the psychosocial burden of osteoarthritis for older women and identify factors perceived to assist with psychological adjustment to the disease. Methods: Women who indicated being diagnosed/treated for osteoarthritis in the previous three years in the fifth survey of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health provided the sampling frame. Participants were randomly sampled until saturation was reached using a systematic process. Thematic content analysis was applied to the 19 semi-structured telephone interviews using a realist framework. Results: The findings indicate that the emotional burden of osteoarthritis is considerable, and the process of psychological adjustment complex. Older women with osteoarthritis have psychological difficulties associated with increasing pain and functional impairment. Psychological adjustment over time was attributed primarily to cognitive and attitudinal factors (e.g. stoicism, making downward comparisons and possessing specific notions about the cause of arthritis). This was a dynamic 'day to day' process involving a constant struggle between grieving physical losses and increasing dependence amidst symptom management. Conclusion: The findings of this study add to the current understanding of the complex processes involved in psychological adjustment over time. Targeted interventions focused on assisting women with arthritis redefine self-concepts outside the confines of caring responsibilities, coupled with public health education programs around understanding the destructive nature of arthritis are required. Understanding the destructive and (potentially) preventable nature of arthritis may facilitate early detection and increased uptake of appropriate treatment options for osteoarthritis that have the ability to modify disease trajectories.

While grief, emotional distress and other mental health conditions have been associated with pregnancy loss, less is known about the mental health impact of these events during subsequent pregnancies and births. This paper examined the impact of any type of pregnancy loss on mental health in a subsequent pregnancy and postpartum. Data were obtained from a sub-sample (N = 584) of the 1973-78 cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health, a prospective cohort study that has been collecting data since 1996. Pregnancy loss was defined as miscarriage, termination due to medical reasons, ectopic pregnancy and stillbirth. Mental health outcomes included depression, anxiety, stress or distress, sadness or low mood, excessive worry, lack of enjoyment, and feelings of guilt. Demographic factors and mental health history were controlled for in the analysis. Women with a previous pregnancy loss were more likely to experience sadness or low mood (AOR = 1.75, 95% CI: 1.11 to 2.76, p = 0.0162), and excessive worry (AOR = 2.01, 95% CI: 1.24 to 3.24, p = 0.0043) during a subsequent pregnancy, but not during the postpartum phase following a subsequent birth. These results indicate that while women who have experienced a pregnancy loss are a more vulnerable population during a subsequent pregnancy, these deficits are not evident in the postpartum. © 2014 Chojenta et al.

Background: Faced with the challenge of recruiting young adults for health studies, researchers have increasingly turned to the Internet and social networking sites, such as Facebook, as part of their recruitment strategy. As yet, few large-scale studies are available that report on the characteristics and representativeness of the sample obtained from such recruitment methods.Objective: The intent of the study was to describe the sociodemographic and health characteristics of a national sample of young Australian women recruited mainly through the Internet and social networking sites and to discuss the representativeness of their sociodemographic, health, and lifestyle characteristics relative to the population.Methods: A cohort of 17,069 women (born between 1989 and 1995) was recruited in 2012-13 for the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Sociodemographic characteristics (percentages, means, and 95% confidence intervals) from the online survey data were compared with women aged 18-23 years from the 2011 Australian Census. Sample data were compared by age and education level with data from the 2011-13 Australian Health Survey (AHS).Results: Compared to the Australian Census data, study participants were broadly representative in terms of geographical distribution across Australia, marital status (95.62%, 16,321/17,069) were never married), and age distribution. A higher percentage had attained university (22.52%, 3844/17,069) and trade/certificate/diploma qualifications (25.94%, 4428/17,069) compared with this age group of women in the national population (9.4% and 21.7% respectively). Among study participants, 22.05% (3721/16,877) were not in paid employment with 35.18% (5931/16,857) studying 16 or more hours a week. A higher percentage of study participants rated their health in the online survey as fair or poor (rather than good, very good, or excellent) compared with those participating in face-to-face interviews in the AHS (18.77%, 3203/17,069 vs 10.1%). A higher percentage of study participants were current smokers (21.78%, 3718/17,069 vs 16.4%) and physically active (59.30%, 10,089/17,014 were classified as sufficiently active vs 48.3%) but alcohol consumption was lower (59.58%, 9865/16,558 reported drinking alcohol at least once per month vs 65.9% in the AHS). Using self-reported height and weight to determine body mass index (BMI, kg/m2), 34.80% (5901/16,956) of the cohort were classified as overweight or obese (BMI of 25 or more), compared with 33.6% respectively using measured height and weight in the AHS.Conclusions: Findings indicated that using the Internet and social networking sites for an online survey represent a feasible recruitment strategy for a national cohort of young women and result in a broadly representative sample of the Australian population.

© 2014 The European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health. Objective A comprehensive life course perspective of women's experiences in obtaining and using contraception in Australia is lacking. This paper explores free-text comments about contraception provided by women born between 1973 and 1978 who participated in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH). Methods The ALSWH is a national population-based cohort study involving over 40,000 women from three age groups, who are surveyed every three years. An initial search identified 1600 comments from 690 women across five surveys from 1996 (when they were aged 18-23 years) to 2009 (31-36 years). The analysis included 305 comments from 289 participants. Factors relating to experiences of barriers to access and optimal contraceptive use were identified and explored using thematic analysis. Results Five themes recurred across the five surveys as women aged: (i) side effects affecting physical and mental health; (ii) lack of information about contraception; (iii) negative experiences with health services; (iv) contraceptive failure; and (v) difficulty with accessing contraception. Conclusion Side effects of hormonal contraception and concerns about contraceptive failure influence women's mental and physical health. Many barriers to effective contraception persist throughout women's reproductive lives. Further research is needed into reducing barriers and minimising negative experiences, to ensure optimal contraceptive access for Australian women.

This study examines differences in uptake of the Medicare items rolled out in 2006 under the 'Better Access Scheme' (BAS) between rural and non-rural Australian women. It compares differences in women's uptake of the BAS services by area of residence (ARIA+) across time using the Australian Longitudinal Study of Women's Health (ALSWH) survey data linked to Medicare data. Women aged 28-33 years at the time the BAS was introduced that responded to the self-reported question on depression/anxiety and consented to linkage of their survey data with Medicare data (n=4316). Participants were grouped by ARIA+according to BAS use, diagnoses of anxiety/depression but no BAS use and other eligible women. Across all areas, women born 1973-1978 with a self-reported diagnosis of depression/anxiety or having treatment under the BAS had a significantly lower mean mental health score compared to other women. Significantly more women living in non-rural areas had used at least one service provided under the BAS initiative compared to women in outer regional, inner regional or remotes areas (21% versus 18% versus 13% versus 7%, respectively), and across all areas, 12% of women reported having a diagnosis of depression/anxiety but not been treated under the BAS. While there is a gradual uptake of the new BAS services, a large percentage of women who have a diagnosis of depression/anxiety have not been treated under the BAS. The data suggest that women in urban areas have been better able to take up the services compared to non-urban women. © 2014 National Rural Health Alliance Inc.

© 2013 ACOTA. Aim: This paper explored how gerontology experts described baby boomers, whether they challenged the popular image, and if they provided alternatives to the popularly reported baby boomer behaviours and characteristics. Methods: Qualitative interviews were conducted with ten experts from different areas across Australia. The interviews were semi-structured and guided by a 'sense-making' approach to explore the baby boomer construct and identify expert narratives that differed from the popularly tendered image. Results: The majority of experts were identified as baby boomers and made use of phrases associated with the popular baby boomer image, such as 'cashed up', 'reinventing retirement' and 'sea change'. Lifestyle and wealth were recognised as staple features of the popular image. To a lesser degree, the experts also recognised alternative characteristics and behaviours, including people with disabilities and those who struggle financially. Conclusions: Experts appeared to identify with the popular baby boomer label, but not necessarily the accompanying stereotypes.

Objectives. To examine: (i) the extent to which victims of intimate partner abuse (IPA) use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) and (ii) the effects of CAM on their mental health. Methods. Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for studies measuring the extent of CAM use amongst victims of IPA and trials assessing the impact of CAM on mental health amongst this population. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane collaboration tool. Results. No studies measuring the level of CAM use amongst IPA victims, and only three studies assessing the effect of CAM on the mental health of this population were identified. Two studies looked at yogic breathing, while one assessed the effect of music therapy. All three studies showed some beneficial effects; however, each had a small sample, brief intervention period, and no follow-up measurement and were considered to be at high risk of bias. Conclusions. The review found little evidence for the benefits of CAM for IPA victims. Findings suggest positive effects of music therapy and yogic breathing; however, methodological limitations mean that these results should be interpreted with caution. It is important that more research into the use and effects of CAM amongst this population are undertaken. © 2014 Luke Duffy et al.

Background: Clinical practice guidelines now recommend that women be asked about their past or current mental health as a routine component of maternity care. However, the value of this line of enquiry in increasing engagement with support services, as required, remains controversial. Aim: The current study aimed to examine whether assessment of past or current mental health, received with or without referral for additional support, is associated with help-seeking during pregnancy and the postpartum. Methods: A subsample of women drawn from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (young cohort) who reported experiencing significant emotional distress during pregnancy (N = 398) or in the 12 months following birth (N = 380) participated in the study. Results: Multivariate analysis showed that women who were not asked about their emotional health were less likely to seek any formal help during both pregnancy (adjOR = 0.09, 95%CI: 0.04-0.24) and the postpartum (adjOR = 0.07, 95%CI: 0.02-0.13), as were women who were asked about these issues but who were not referred for additional support (antenatal: adjOR = 0.26, 95%CI: 0.15-0.45; postnatal: adjOR = 0.14, 95%CI: 0.07-0.27). However, considerable levels of consultation with general practitioners, midwives and child health nurses, even in the absence of referral, were evident. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that enquiry by a health professional about women's past or current mental health is associated with help-seeking throughout the perinatal period. The clinical and resource implications of these findings for the primary health care sector should be considered prior to the implementation of future routine perinatal depression screening or psychosocial assessment programmes. © 2014 Australian College of Midwives.

Objective To identify predictors of antenatal alcohol consumption among women who usually consume alcohol. Design Prospective cohort study. Setting Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH). Population or Sample A total of 1969 women sampled from the ALSWH 1973-78 cohort. Methods Women were included if they were pregnant in 2000, 2003, 2006 or 2009. The relationship between antenatal alcohol consumption and sociodemographics, reproductive health, mental health, physical health, health behaviours, alcohol guidelines and healthcare factors was investigated using a multivariate logistic regression model. Main outcome measures Alcohol use during pregnancy. Results Most (82.0%) women continued to drink alcohol during pregnancy. Women were more likely to drink alcohol during pregnancy if they had consumed alcohol on a weekly basis before pregnancy (odds ratio [OR] 1.47; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.13-1.90), binge drank before pregnancy (OR 2.28; 95% CI 1.76-2.94), or if they were pregnant while alcohol guidelines recommended low alcohol versus abstinence (OR 1.60; 95% CI 1.26-2.03). Drinking during pregnancy was less likely if women had a Health Care Card (OR 0.63; 95% CI 0.45-0.88) or if they had ever had fertility problems (OR 0.64; 95% CI 0.48-0.86). Conclusions Most Australian women who drank alcohol continued to do so during pregnancy. Prepregnancy alcohol consumption was one of the main predictors of antenatal alcohol use. Alcohol guidelines, fertility problems and Health Care Card status also impacted antenatal alcohol consumption. © 2013 RCOG.