Professor Zsolt Balogh

© 2019 The Author(s). Background: No study has examined the prevalence of tobacco, other substance use, and symptoms of anxiety and depression, and rates of comorbidities among the orthopaedic trauma population, despite the impact they have on recovery from surgery. This study aims to 1) describe the rates of symptoms and substance use; 2) compare rates of symptoms and substance use among smokers versus non-smokers; and 3) examine the relationship between symptoms and substance use with smoking status. Methods: A cross-sectional survey of orthopaedic trauma patients was conducted in two Australian public hospitals. Demographic characteristics, smoking status, alcohol consumption, recent cannabis use, and symptoms of anxiety and/or depression were examined. Differences between current and non-smokers were compared using Pearson Chi 2 tests. Multivariate logistic regression explored variables related to tobacco smoking. Results: Eight hundred nineteen patients participated. Over one-fifth (21.8%) identified as a current smoker, half (51.8%) reported consuming alcohol at hazardous levels in the last 12 months, and about 10% stated that they had used cannabis in the last 30 days (9.7%), or experienced symptoms of either anxiety (12.4%), or depression (12.9%) in the last two weeks. Over one-fifth of current tobacco smokers (21.8%) reported drinking heavily in the last 12 months and using cannabis recently. Males, with a lower educational attainment, who were unmarried, had used cannabis recently, and report drinking heavily were more likely to be current smokers. Conclusions: Health behaviour interventions addressing comorbidities are warranted among the orthopaedic trauma population given the high rate of comorbidity and impact these may have on recovery.

© 2018 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. BACKGROUND Cell-free mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is proinflammatory and has been detected in high concentrations in trauma patients' plasma. Deoxyribonuclease (DNAse) is the free plasma enzyme responsible for the digestion of extracellular DNA. The relationship between mtDNA and DNAse after major trauma is unknown. We hypothesized that DNAse activity would be elevated after injury and trauma surgery and would be associated with high concentrations of extracellular DNA. METHODS Two-year prospective study was performed on 103 consecutive trauma patients (male, 81%; age, 38 years [interquartile range, 30-59 years]; injury severity score, 18 [interquartile range, 12-26 years]) who underwent standardized major orthopedic trauma surgical interventions. Blood was collected at five perioperative time points (preoperative, postoperative, 7 hours, 24 hours, and 3 days postoperatively). Healthy control subjects (n = 20) were also sampled. Cell-free mtDNA and nuclear DNA (nDNA) were measured using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Deoxyribonuclease was also assayed in the same plasma samples. RESULTS Increased levels of mtDNA (from preoperative 163 ± 86 ng/mL to 3 days 282 ± 201 ng/mL, p < 0.0001) and nDNA (from preoperative 28 ± 20 ng/mL to 3 days 37 ± 27 ng/mL, p < 0.05) were present in trauma patients at all perioperative time points compared with healthy controls (mtDNA: 4 ± 2 ng/mL; nDNA: 10 ± 5 ng/mL). Deoxyribonuclease activity was lower in the trauma cohort (from preoperative 0.06 ± 0.04U/mL to 3 days 0.08 ± 0.04U/mL, p < 0.0001) compared with healthy controls (DNAse: 0.17 ± 0.03U/mL). There was no correlation between DNAse and perioperative DNA concentrations. Elevated mtDNA (but not nDNA) correlated with the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) (p = 0.026) but not multiple organ failure. CONCLUSIONS The significant perioperative elevation in plasma-free mtDNA concentration is associated with the development of SIRS. The fact that increased cell-free DNA concentrations present with significantly lower than healthy control DNAse activity suggests a potential therapeutic opportunity with DNAse administration to modulate postinjury severe SIRS. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Prognostic/Epidemiological, level II.

© 2018 The British Editorial Society of Bone and Joint Surgery. Aims To evaluate interobserver reliability of the Orthopaedic Trauma Association's open fracture classification system (OTA-OFC). Patients and Methods Patients of any age with a first presentation of an open long bone fracture were included. Standard radiographs, wound photographs, and a short clinical description were given to eight orthopaedic surgeons, who independently evaluated the injury using both the Gustilo and Anderson (GA) and OTA-OFC classifications. The responses were compared for variability using Cohen's kappa. Results The overall interobserver agreement was ¿ = 0.44 for the GA classification and ¿ = 0.49 for OTA-OFC, which reflects moderate agreement (0.41 to 0.60) for both classifications. The agreement in the five categories of OTA-OFC was: for skin, ¿ = 0.55 (moderate); for muscle, ¿ = 0.44 (moderate); for arterial injury, ¿ = 0.74 (substantial); for contamination, ¿ = 0.35 (fair); and for bone loss, ¿ = 0.41 (moderate). Conclusion Although the OTA-OFC, with similar interobserver agreement to GA, offers a more detailed description of open fractures, further development may be needed to make it a reliable and robust tool.

© 2018 The Author(s). Damage control resuscitation may lead to postoperative intra-abdominal hypertension or abdominal compartment syndrome. These conditions may result in a vicious, self-perpetuating cycle leading to severe physiologic derangements and multiorgan failure unless interrupted by abdominal (surgical or other) decompression. Further, in some clinical situations, the abdomen cannot be closed due to the visceral edema, the inability to control the compelling source of infection or the necessity to re-explore (as a "planned second-look" laparotomy) or complete previously initiated damage control procedures or in cases of abdominal wall disruption. The open abdomen in trauma and non-trauma patients has been proposed to be effective in preventing or treating deranged physiology in patients with severe injuries or critical illness when no other perceived options exist. Its use, however, remains controversial as it is resource consuming and represents a non-anatomic situation with the potential for severe adverse effects. Its use, therefore, should only be considered in patients who would most benefit from it. Abdominal fascia-to-fascia closure should be done as soon as the patient can physiologically tolerate it. All precautions to minimize complications should be implemented.

© 2018 Author(s) et al. Aims: Little is known about the effect of haemorrhagic shock and resuscitation on fracture healing. This study used a rabbit model with a femoral osteotomy and fixation to examine this relationship. Materials and Methods: A total of 18 male New Zealand white rabbits underwent femoral osteotomy with intramedullary fixation with 'shock' (n = 9) and control (n = 9) groups. Shock was induced in the study group by removal of 35% of the total blood volume 45 minutes before resuscitation with blood and crystalloid. Fracture healing was monitored for eight weeks using serum markers of healing and radiographs. Results: Four animals were excluded due to postoperative complications. The serum concentration of osteocalcin was significantly elevated in the shock group postoperatively (p < 0.0001). There were otherwise no differences with regard to serum markers of bone healing. The callus index was consistently increased in the shock group on anteroposterior (p = 0.0069) and lateral (p = 0.0165) radiographs from three weeks postoperatively. The control group showed an earlier decrease of callus index. Radiographic scores were significantly greater in the control group (p = 0.0025). Conclusion: In a rabbit femoral osteotomy model with intramedullary fixation, haemorrhagic shock and resuscitation produced larger callus but with evidence of delayed remodelling.

© 2018, The Author(s). Mitochondria play a key role in the pathophysiology of post-injury inflammation. Cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf-mtDNA) is now understood to catalyse sterile inflammation after trauma. Observations in trauma cohorts have identified high cf-mtDNA in patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome and multiple organ failure as well as following major surgery. The source of cf-mtDNA can be various cells affected by mechanical and hypoxic injury (passive mechanism) or induced by inflammatory mechanisms (active mechanism). Multiple forms of cf-mtDNA exist; mtDNA fragments, mtDNA in microparticles/vesicles and cell-free mitochondria. Trauma to cells that are rich in mitochondria are believed to release more cf-mtDNA. This review describes the current understanding of the mechanisms of cf-mtDNA release, its systemic effects and the potential therapeutic implications related to its modification. Although current understanding is insufficient to change trauma management, focussed research goals have been identified to pave the way for monitoring and manipulation of cf-mtDNA release and effects in trauma.

© 2017, Société Internationale de Chirurgie. Objectives: To describe the trend in major trauma surgical procedures and interventional radiology in major trauma patients in Australia over the past 6 years. Methods: This was a retrospective review of adult major trauma (Injury Severity Score greater than 15) patients using the New South Wales Statewide Trauma Registry between 2009 and 2014. Major trauma surgical procedures were classified into abdominal, neurosurgery, cardiothoracic and interventional radiology. The proportion of patients undergoing such procedures per year was the outcome of interest. Results: There were around ten thousand cases analysed. The proportion of cases undergoing interventional radiology procedures increased from 1% in 2009 to around 6% in 2014. Other major trauma surgical procedures remained stable. Only around 100 laparotomies were performed in 2014. The predictors of having an IR procedure performed were increasing from 2009 (OR 1.5 95% CI 1.4, 1.6 p¿<¿0.001), hypotension (OR 1.5 95% CI 1.1, 2.1 n¿=¿0.01), severe abdominal injury (OR 4.2 95% CI 3.2, 5.3 p¿<¿0.001) and lower limb (including pelvic) injury (OR 3.8 95% CI 3.0, 4.7 p¿<¿0.001). Conclusion: There has been a rapid increase in the use of interventional radiology over the past few years which will need to be addressed in future trauma service planning and models of care.

© 2017 The Authors ANZ Journal of Surgery published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Royal Australasian College of Surgeons Background: Development of core research competency is a principle of orthopaedic surgical training in Australia. This paper aims to provide an objective snapshot of publications by Australian orthopaedic trainees and surgeons, to contribute to the discussion on how to identify and build on research capability in the Australian Orthopaedic Association (AOA). Methods: By analysing journals with a journal impact factor >1 from 2009 to 2015, data were gathered to explore scientific journal publications by Australian orthopaedic surgeons and trainees in relation to who are the authors, what they are reporting and where they are publishing. Results: One thousand five hundred and thirty-nine articles were identified with 134 orthopaedic trainees and 519 surgeons as authors. The publication rate for both trainees and surgeons was just over two in five. The majority of studies were of level three or four evidence (Oxford's Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine guidelines). Only 5% of trainee papers were published without surgeons¿ co-authorship. Eighty-six percent of papers published by surgeons did not involve a trainee. The rates of trainees publishing with other trainees were low. Conclusion: Only 5% of trainee papers were published without surgeons' co-authorship, highlighting the importance of surgeon mentorship in developing trainee research capability. The 86% of papers published by surgeons without trainee co-authorship raises the question of missed mentoring opportunities. Low rates of trainee co-authorship highlight potential for trainees to work together to support each other's research efforts. There is scope for more studies involving higher levels of evidence. This paper raises discussion points and areas for further exploration in relation to AOA trainee research capability.

Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles, the energy-producing centers in almost all eukaryotic cells. The evolutionary emergence of mitochondria is a result of the endocytosis of a-proteobacteria. There are several characteristic features which refer to its prokaryotic ancestors including its independent sets of double-stranded mitochondrial DNA, which is uniquely circular in form and contains a significant amount of unmethylated DNA as CpG islands. Resent research has proven that free mitochondrial DNA found in blood was associated with innate immunomodulation in a broad-range of clinical conditions. Upon release, mitochondrial DNA acts as a danger-associated molecular pattern in the circulation, it is recognized by pattern recognition receptors and it facilitates inflammatory responses. Besides its high receptor activation potential, mitochondrial DNA is likely to perform direct crosstalk with activated leukocytes and to be contributed to other anti-microbial activities. Here we highlight the pathological conditions where cell free mtDNA is involved, describe the potential sources and mechanisms of extracellular mtDNA release and explore evidence for its mechanism of action after being excreted and potential therapeutic strategies.

© 2017, BMJ Publishing Group. All rights reserved. Background Tobacco smoking can have negative health outcomes on recovery from surgery. Although it is recommended best practice to provide patients with advice to quit and follow-up support, provision of postdischarge support is rare. Developing an online smoking cessation program may help address this gap. Objectives This paper describes the development and pretesting of an online smoking cessation program (smoke-free recovery, SFR) tailored to the orthopaedic trauma population for use while in hospital and post-discharge. Methods Drawing on the DoTTI framework for developing an online program, the following steps were followed for program development: (1) design and development; (2) testing early iteration; (3) testing for effectiveness and (4) integration and implementation. This article describes the first two stages of SFR program development. Results SFR is a 10-module online smoking cessation program tailored for patients with orthopaedic trauma. Of the participants who completed testing early iterations, none reported any difficulties orientating themselves to the program or understanding program content. The main themes were that it was ¿helpful¿, provision of ¿help to quit¿ was low and SFR increased thoughts of ¿staying quit post discharge¿. Conclusions This study found that a theory and evidence-based approach as the basis for an online smoking cessation program for patients with orthopaedic trauma was acceptable to users. A randomised controlled trial will be conducted to examine whether the online smoking cessation program is effective in increasing smoking cessation and how it can be integrated and implemented into hospital practice (stages three and four of the DoTTI framework).

© 2017 The Author(s). Intra-abdominal infections (IAIs) are common surgical emergencies and have been reported as major contributors to non-trauma deaths in the emergency departments worldwide. The cornerstones of effective treatment of IAIs are early recognition, adequate source control, and appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Prompt resuscitation of patients with ongoing sepsis is of utmost important. In hospitals worldwide, non-acceptance of, or lack of access to, accessible evidence-based practices and guidelines result in overall poorer outcome of patients suffering IAIs. The aim of this paper is to promote global standards of care in IAIs and update the 2013 WSES guidelines for management of intra-abdominal infections.

Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. Objective: This study investigates orthopaedic trauma patients smoking cessation history, intentions to quit, receipt of smoking cessation care during hospital admission, and patient-related factors associated with receipt of smoking cessation care. Methods: An online cross-sectional survey of orthopaedic trauma patients was conducted in 2 public hospitals in New South Wales, Australia. Prevalence of smoking and associated variables were described. Logistic regressions were used to examine whether patient characteristics were associated with receipt of smoking cessation care. Results: Eight hundred nineteen patients (response rate 73%) participated. More than 1 in 5 patients (21.8%) were current smokers (n = 175). Of the current smokers, more than half (55.3%) indicated making a quit attempt in the last 12 months and the majority (77.6%) were interested in quitting. More than a third of smokers (37.4%) were not advised to quit; 44.3% did not receive any form of nicotine replacement therapy; and 24.1% reported that they did not receive any of these 3 forms of smoking cessation care during their admission. Provision of care was not related to patient characteristics. Conclusions: The prevalence of smoking among the sample was high. Respondents were interested in quitting; however, the provision of care during admission was low. Smoking cessation interventions need to be developed to increase the provision of care and to promote quit attempts in this Australian population.

© 2017, AO Research Institute. All rights reserved. Morbidity associated with femur fractures in polytrauma patients is known to be high. The many unsolved clinical questions include the immunological effect of the fracture and its fixation, timing of fracture fixation, management of fracture non-union, effect of infection and critical size of bone defects. The aim of this study was to establish a clinically-relevant and reproducible animal model with regards to histological, biomechanical and radiological changes during bone healing. A custom-designed intramedullary nail with interlocking system (RabbitNail, RISystem AG, Davos Platz, Switzerland) was used for fixation, following femur fracture. New Zealand White rabbits were assigned to two groups: 1. closed fracture model (CF; non-survival model: n = 6, survival model: n = 3) with unilateral mid-shaft femur fracture created by blunt force; 2. osteotomy model (OT; survival model: n = 14) with unilateral transverse osteotomy creating femur fracture. There were no intraoperative complications and full-weight bearing was achieved in all survival rabbits. Significant periosteal reaction and callus formation were confirmed from 2 weeks postoperatively, with a significant volume formation (739.59 ± 62.14 mm3) at 8 weeks confirmed by micro-computed tomography (µ-CT). 2 months after fixation, there was no difference between the osteotomised and contralateral control femora in respect to the maximum torque (3.47 ± 0.35 N m vs. 3.26 ± 0.37 N m) and total energy (21.11 ± 3.09 N m × degree vs. 20.89 ± 2.63 N m × degree) required to break the femur. The data confirmed that a standardised internal fixation technique with an intramedullary nail for closed fracture or osteotomy produced satisfactory bone healing. It was concluded that important clinically-relevant studies can be conducted using this rabbit model.

© 2017, Société Internationale de Chirurgie. Background: In patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), early CT perfusion (CTP) provides additional information beyond the non-contrast CT (NCCT) and may alter clinical management. We hypothesized that this information may prognosticate functional outcome. Methods: Five-year prospective observational study was performed in a level-1 trauma centre on consecutive severe TBI patients. CTP (obtained in conjunction with first routine NCCT) was interpreted as: abnormal, area of altered perfusion more extensive than on NCCT, and the presence of ischaemia. Six months Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended of four or less was considered an unfavourable outcome. Logistic regression analysis of CTP findings and core variables [preintubation Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), Rotterdam score, base deficit, age] was conducted using Bayesian model averaging to identify the best predicting model for unfavourable outcome. Results: Fifty patients were investigated with CTP (one excluded for the absence of TBI) [male: 80%, median age: 35 (23¿55), prehospital intubation: 7 (14.2%); median GCS: 5 (3¿7); median injury severity score: 29 (20¿36); median head and neck abbreviated injury scale: 4 (4¿5); median days in ICU: 10 (5¿15)]. Thirty (50.8%) patients had an unfavourable outcome. GCS was a moderate predictor of unfavourable outcome (AUC¿=¿0.74), while CTP variables showed greater predictive ability (AUC for abnormal CTP¿=¿0.92; AUC for area of altered perfusion more extensive than NCCT¿=¿0.83; AUC for the presence of ischaemia¿=¿0.81). Conclusion: Following severe TBI, CTP performed at the time of the first follow-up NCCT, is a non-invasive and extremely valuable tool for early outcome prediction. The potential impact on management and its cost effectiveness deserves to be evaluated in large-scale studies. Level of evidence III: Prospective study.

© 2016 The Author(s). Background: Severely injured children may have better outcomes when transported directly to a Paediatric Trauma Centre (PTC). A case identification system using the crew of a physician staffed helicopter emergency medical service (P-HEMS) that identified severely injured children for P-HEMS dispatch was previously associated with high rates of direct transfer. It was theorised that discontinuation of this system may have resulted in deterioration of system performance. Methods: Severe paediatric trauma cases were identified from a state based trauma registry over two time periods. In Period A the P-HEMS case identification system operated in parallel with a paramedic dispatcher (Rapid Launch Trauma Co-ordinator-RLTC) operating from a central control room (n = 71). In Period B the paramedic dispatcher operated in isolation (n = 126). Case identification and direct transfer rates were compared as was time to arrival at the PTC. Results: After cessation of the P-HEMS system the rate of case identification fell from 62 to 31 % (P < 0.001), identification of fatal cases fell from 100 to 47 % (P < 0.001), the rate of direct transfer to a PTC fell from 66 to 53 % (P = 0.076) and the time to arrival in a PTC increased from a median 69 (interquartile range 52 - 104) mins to 97 (interquartile range 56 - 305) mins (P = 0.003). When analysing the rate of direct transfer to a PTC as a function of team composition, after adjusting for age and injury severity scores, there was no change in the rate between the physician and paramedic groups across the two time periods (relative risk 0.92, 95 % CI: 0.44 to 1.41). Discussion: The parallel identification system improves case identification rates and decreases time to arrival at the PTC, whilst requiring RLTC authorisation preserves the safety and efficiency benefits of centralised dispatch. The model could be extended to adult patients with similar benefits. Conclusions: A case identification system relying solely on RLTC paramedics resulted in a significantly lower case identification rate and increased prehospital time with a non-significant fall in direct transfer rate to the PTC. The elimination of the P-HEMS input from the tasking system resulted in worse performance indicators and has the potential for poorer outcomes.

© 2016 Background A previous report from the New South Wales (NSW) Trauma Registry identified falls and increasing age of severely injured patients as highly prevalent, but detailed injury and demographic profiles, outcomes and their predictors are poorly reported. This study describes the fall-injury profile in the older adult major trauma patient in NSW. Methods A retrospective registry based study between 2010 and 2014 on patients aged 55 years and over who sustained a moderate to critical injury from a fall, examining mortality and length of stay using regression analyses. Results There were 4263 major trauma falls between 2010 and 2014, most occurring at home (55.4%), on the same level (46.7%) and resulting in head injury (63.2%). Significant predictors for mortality following a fall were increased age, male gender, falls in residential care institutions, isolated head injuries and injury classified as critical (ISS 41¿75). Conclusions The outcomes of falls in the older adult are very poor and a focused prospective study is required to identify areas for intervention and prevention. The predictors of mortality following a fall identified in this study can be used with existing research to develop tools and design care pathways for implementation in the emergency context to improve patient care and outcomes.

© 2016 AMPCo Pty Ltd. Produced with Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Objective: To determine trends in crude and risk-adjusted mortality for major trauma patients injured in rural or metropolitan New South Wales, 2009e2014. Design: A retrospective analysis of NSW statewide trauma registry data. Participants: Adult patients (aged 16 years or more) who presented with major trauma (Injury Severity Scores greater than 15) to a NSW hospital during 2009e2014. Main outcome measures: The main covariate of interest was geographic location of injury (metropolitan v rural/regional areas). Inpatientmortalitywasanalysedbymultivariable logistic regression. Results: Data for 11 423 eligible patients were analysed. Inpatient mortality for those injured in metropolitan locations was 14.7% in 2009 and 16.1% in 2014 (P = 0.45). In rural locations, there was a statistically significant decline in in-hospital mortality over the study period, from 12.1% in 2009 to 8.7% in 2014 (P = 0.004). Risk-adjusted mortality for those injured in a rural location was lower in 2013 than during 2009, but remained stable for those injured in metropolitan locations. Conclusion: Crude and risk-adjusted mortality after major trauma have remained stable in those injured in metropolitan areas of NSW between 2009 and 2014. The apparent downward trend in mortality associated with severe trauma in rural/regional locations requires further analysis.

© 2016 Royal Australasian College of Surgeons Background: Multiple scoring systems are used in the assessment of post-injury outcomes in pelvic fracture patients. Although commonly used, there is scarce evidence as to their validity. Methods: We performed a systematic review of the current literature to compare a well validated generic outcome tool (Short Form-36 (SF-36)) and three commonly used pelvic-specific outcome tools, the Iowa Pelvic Score, Majeed Pelvic Score and Orlando Pelvic Score. Results: Eleven papers were found that used both the SF-36 and one or more of the pelvic-specific outcome tools. The data demonstrate great variability in both the method of application and form of reporting. Conclusion: The pelvic-specific tools produce similar results to the SF-36 and are potentially more sensitive in examining specific areas related to pelvic injuries and easier to perform and calculate than the SF-36.

Secondary intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) are closely related to fluid resuscitation. IAH causes major deterioration of the cardiac function by affecting preload, contractility and afterload. The aim of this review is to discuss the different interactions between IAH, ACS and resuscitation, and to explore a new hypothesis with regard to damage control resuscitation, permissive hypotension and global increased permeability syndrome. The recognition of the association between the development of ACS and resuscitation urged the need for new approach in traumatic shock management. Over a decade after wide spread application of damage control surgery damage control resuscitation was developed. DCR differs from previous resuscitation approaches by attempting an earlier and more aggressive correction of coagulopathy, as well as metabolic derangements like acidosis and hypothermia, often referred to as the 'deadly triad' or the 'bloody vicious cycle'. Permissive hypotension involves keeping the blood pressure low enough to avoid exacerbating uncontrolled haemorrhage while maintaining perfusion to vital end organs. The potential detrimental mechanisms of early, aggressive crystalloid resuscitation have been described. Limitation of fluid intake by using colloids, hypertonic saline (HTS) or hyperoncotic albumin solutions have been associated with favourable effects. HTS allows not only for rapid restoration of circulating intravascular volume with less administered fluid, but also attenuates post-injury oedema at the microcirculatory level and may improve microvascular perfusion. Capillary leak represents the maladaptive, often excessive, and undesirable loss of fluid and electrolytes with or without protein into the interstitium that generates oedema. The global increased permeability syndrome (GIPS) has been articulated in patients with persistent systemic inflammation failing to curtail transcapillary albumin leakage and resulting in increasingly positive net fluid balances. GIPS may represent a third hit after the initial insult and the ischaemia reperfusion injury. Novel markers like the capillary leak index, extravascular lung water and pulmonary permeability index may help the clinician in guiding appropriate fluid management. Capillary leak is an inflammatory condition with diverse triggers that results from a common pathway that includes ischaemia-reperfusion, toxic oxygen metabolite generation, cell wall and enzyme injury leading to a loss of capillary endothelial barrier function. Fluid overload should be avoided in this setting.

The abdomen is the second most common source of sepsis and secondary peritonitis. The most common causes of abdominal sepsis are perforation, ischemic necrosis or penetrating injury to the abdominal viscera. Management consists of control of the infection source, restoration of gastrointestinal tract (GI) function, systemic antimicrobial therapy and support of organ function. Mortality after secondary peritonitis is still high. Excluding patient-related factors such as age or co-morbidities that can not be influenced at the time of intervention, delay to surgical intervention and inability to obtain source control are the main determinants of outcome. In patients with severe physiological derangement or difficult intraperitoneal conditions, where a prolonged operation and complete anatomical repair may not be possible or appropriate, it is becoming increasingly popular to utilize a damage control strategy with abbreviated laparotomy and planned reoperations. The main components of damage control laparotomy for secondary peritonitis are postponing the reconstruction of intestinal anastomoses to a second operation (deferred anastomosis) and leaving the abdomen open with some form of temporary abdominal closure (TAC). Advances in the management techniques of the open abdomen and new negative pressure-based TAC-devices have significantly reduced the previously observed prohibitive morbidity associated with open abdomens. These advancements have led to current fascial closure rates after TAC approaching 90%. The cornerstones of appropriate antimicrobial therapy are the timing, spectrum and dosing of antibiotics. Enteral nutrition should be started as soon as possible in hemodynamically stable patients but withheld when the patient is on a significant dose of vasopressors or whenever GI hypoperfusion is suspected. Timely source control with appropriate use of antimicrobial agents and early intensive care offers the best chance of survival for patients with abdominal sepsis. The introduction of the concept of damage control to the management of secondary peritonitis represents a paradigm shift in the same way as in management of major trauma. Although limited and repeated surgical interventions have been shown to be safe, the actual benefits need to be demonstrated in controlled studies.

© 2015 The Author(s). Introduction: Trauma systems were developed to improve the care for the injured. The designation and elements comprising these systems vary across countries. In this study, we have compared the demographic patterns and patient outcomes of Level I trauma centers in three international trauma systems. Methods: International multicenter prospective trauma registry-based study, performed in the University Medical Center Utrecht (UMCU), Utrecht, the Netherlands, John Hunter Hospital (JHH), Newcastle, Australia, and Harborview Medical Center (HMC), Seattle, the United States. Inclusion: patients =18 years, admitted in 2012, registered in the institutional trauma registry. Results: In UMCU, JHH, and HMC, respectively, 955, 1146, and 4049 patients met the inclusion criteria of which 300, 412, and 1375 patients with Injury Severity Score (ISS) > 15. Mean ISS was higher in JHH (13.5; p < 0.001) and HMC (13.4; p < 0.001) compared to UMCU (11.7). Unadjusted mortality: UMCU = 6.5 %, JHH = 3.6 %, and HMC = 4.8 %. Adjusted odds of death: JHH = 0.498 [95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.303-0.818] and HMC = 0.473 (95 % CI 0.325-0.690) compared to UMCU. HMC compared to JHH was 1.002 (95 % CI 0.664-1.514). Odds of death patients ISS > 15: JHH = 0.507 (95 % CI 0.300-0.857) and HMC = 0.451 (95 % CI 0.297-0.683) compared to UMCU. HMC = 0.931 (95 % CI 0.608-1.425) compared to JHH. TRISS analysis: UMCU: Ws = 0.787, Z = 1.31, M = 0.87; JHH, Ws = 3.583, Z = 6.7, M = 0.89; HMC, Ws = 3.902, Z = 14.6, M = 0.84. Conclusion: This study demonstrated substantial differences across centers in patient characteristics and mortality, mainly of neurological cause. Future research must investigate whether the outcome differences remain with nonfatal and long-term outcomes. Furthermore, we must focus on the development of a more valid method to compare systems.

The CIAOW study (Complicated intra-abdominal infections worldwide observational study) is a multicenter observational study underwent in 68 medical institutions worldwide during a six-month study period (October 2012-March 2013). The study included patients older than 18 years undergoing surgery or interventional drainage to address complicated intra-abdominal infections (IAIs).1898 patients with a mean age of 51.6 years (range 18-99) were enrolled in the study. 777 patients (41%) were women and 1,121 (59%) were men. Among these patients, 1,645 (86.7%) were affected by community-acquired IAIs while the remaining 253 (13.3%) suffered from healthcare-associated infections. Intraperitoneal specimens were collected from 1,190 (62.7%) of the enrolled patients.827 patients (43.6%) were affected by generalized peritonitis while 1071 (56.4%) suffered from localized peritonitis or abscesses.The overall mortality rate was 10.5% (199/1898).According to stepwise multivariate analysis (PR = 0.005 and PE = 0.001), several criteria were found to be independent variables predictive of mortality, including patient age (OR = 1.1; 95%CI = 1.0-1.1; p < 0.0001), the presence of small bowel perforation (OR = 2.8; 95%CI = 1.5-5.3; p < 0.0001), a delayed initial intervention (a delay exceeding 24 hours) (OR = 1.8; 95%CI = 1.5-3.7; p < 0.0001), ICU admission (OR = 5.9; 95%CI = 3.6-9.5; p < 0.0001) and patient immunosuppression (OR = 3.8; 95%CI = 2.1-6.7; p < 0.0001). © 2014 Sartelli et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

Introduction and Aims: We studied the prevalence of smoking, the effect of hospital stay on motivation to quit and the exposure to smoking cessation advice in orthopaedic patients who required surgical intervention for acute extremity fractures. Design and Methods: This cross-sectional study involved a self-administered pen-and-paper survey assessing smoking status, interest and motivation to quit smoking, and current advice to quit among a consecutive cohort of patients aged 18-65 years old with acute extremity fractures. These patients were admitted to the John Hunter Hospital Level 1 trauma facility in New South Wales, Australia, for surgical intervention over a three month period. Results: A total of 183 patients (response rate 98%) completed the survey. Sixty-eight patients (37.2%) reported a current smoking habit. The prevalence of smoking was 42.2% among males and 25.5% among females. A total of 40% of smokers reported that they had not received advice to quit from medical staff during hospital admission. Prior to admission, 12.1% of smokers were interested in smoking cessation; this percentage increased to 26.8% post-admission. Discussion and Conclusions: The prevalence of smoking among surgical patients with extremity fractures was found to be more than twice the prevalence of the population of New South Wales. Hospital admission had a positive impact on the patient's interest in smoking cessation. Our study suggests that the identification of orthopaedic patients who smoke is suboptimal, and the opportunity to encourage smoking cessation during hospital admission is currently being overlooked. © 2014 Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs.

Background: Damage control surgery is a management sequence initiated to reduce the risk of death in severely injured patients presenting with physiological derangement. Damage control principles have emerged as an approach in non-trauma abdominal emergencies in order to reduce mortality compared with primary definitive surgery. Methods: A PubMed/MEDLINE literature review was conducted of data available over the past decade (up to August 2013) to gain information on current understanding of damage control surgery for abdominal surgical emergencies. Future directions for research are discussed. Results: Damage control surgery facilitates a strategy for life-saving intervention for critically ill patients by abbreviated laparotomy with subsequent reoperation for delayed definitive repair after physiological resuscitation. The six-phase strategy (including damage control resuscitation in phase 0) is similar to that for severely injured patients, although non-trauma indications include shock from uncontrolled haemorrhage or sepsis. Minimal evidence exists to validate the benefit of damage control surgery in general surgical abdominal emergencies. The collective published experience over the past decade is limited to 16 studies including a total of 455 (range 3-99) patients, of which the majority are retrospective case series. However, the concept has widespread acceptance by emergency surgeons, and appears a logical extension from pathophysiological principles in trauma to haemorrhage and sepsis. The benefits of this strategy depend on careful patient selection. Damage control surgery has been performed for a wide range of indications, but most frequently for uncontrolled bleeding during elective surgery, haemorrhage from complicated gastroduodenal ulcer disease, generalized peritonitis, acute mesenteric ischaemia and other sources of intra-abdominal sepsis. Conclusion: Damage control surgery is employed in a wide range of abdominal emergencies and is an increasingly recognized life-saving tactic in emergency surgery performed on physiologically deranged patients. © 2013 BJS Society Ltd.

Background: Post injury immune dysfunction can result in serious complications. Measurement of biomarkers may guide the optimal timing of surgery in clinically borderline patients and therefore prevent complications. Aim: peri-operative measurement of neutrophil oxidative burst capacity as an indicator of the immune response to major orthopaedic surgical procedures. Methods: Prospective cohort study of trauma patients aged =16 yrs with pelvic, acetabular, femoral shaft or tibial shaft fractures requiring surgical intervention. Blood samples were taken immediately pre-op and at 30 min, 7, 24 and 72-96 h post-operatively. Neutrophil oxidative burst capacity was measured both with and without stimulation by formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP, a chemotactic factor). Clinical outcomes measured were mortality, length of stay, MOF, pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and sepsis. Results: 100 consecutive orthopaedic trauma patients were enrolled over a 16 month period. 78% were male, with a mean age of 42 ± 18 years and an average ISS of 19 ± 13. Neutrophil oxidative burst capacity was significantly elevated at 7 h (p = 0.006) and 24 h (p = 0.022) post operatively. Patients who developed infective complications (pneumonia and sepsis) had higher levels of oxidative burst capacity pre-operatively (pneumonia: 1.52 ± 0.93 v 0.99 ± 0.66 p = 0.032, sepsis: 1.39 ± 0.86 v 0.97 ± 0.56 p = 0.024) and at 24 h post op (pneumonia: 2.72 ± 2.38 v 1.12 ± 0.63 p = <0.001, sepsis: 2.16 ± 2.09 v 1.10 ± 0.54 p = <0.001). When analysed by operation type, no statistical difference was seen between major and minor operations. No correlation was found between length of stay, length of ICU stay, ISS or age and neutrophil oxidative burst capacity at any time point. Conclusions: Neutrophil oxidative burst capacity response to orthopaedic trauma surgery is associated with the infective post injury complications. There was no correlation between magnitude of injury or operation and oxidative burst capacity. These results are promising for the development of tools for prediction of post-operative complications and guidance for optimal timing for surgical intervention. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction: Knowledge about the functional consequences of lower limb long bone fractures is helpful to inform patients, clinicians and employers about their recovery process and prognosis. This study aims to describe the epidemiology and health outcomes of femoral and tibial shaft fractures treated at two level I trauma centres, by comparing the differences between patients with delayed union or nonunion and patients with union. Patients and methods: An analysis of registry data over two years, supplemented with medical record review, was conducted. Fracture healing was retrospectively assessed by clinical and radiological evidence of union, and the need for surgical intervention. SF-12 scores, and work and pain status were prospectively recorded at six and twelve months post injury. Results: 285 fractures progressed to union and 138 fractures developed delayed union or nonunion. There was a significant difference between the two cohorts with regards to the mechanism of injury, association with multi-trauma, open fractures, grade of Gustilo classification, patient fund source, smoking status and presence of comorbidities. The SF-12 physical component score was less than 50 at both six and twelve months with improvement in the union group, but not in the delayed union or nonunion group. 72% of patients with union had returned to work at one year, but 54% continued to have pain. The difference compared to patients with delayed union or nonunion was significant. Discussion: Even patients whose fractures unite in the expectant time-frame will have residual physical disability. Patients with delayed union or nonunion have still poorer outcomes, including ongoing problems with returning to work and pain. It is important to educate patients about their injury so that they have realistic expectations. This is particularly relevant given that the patients most likely to sustain femoral or tibial shaft fractures are working-age healthy adults, and up to a third of fractures may develop delayed union or nonunion. Conclusion: Despite modern treatment, the patient-reported outcomes of lower limb long bone shaft fractures do not return to normal at one year. Patients with delayed union or nonunion can expect poorer outcomes. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

© 2014 The Authors. Introduction: Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have not been demonstrated after trauma and subsequent surgery. Neutrophil extracellular traps are formed from pure mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) under certain conditions, which is potently proinflammatory. We hypothesized that injury and orthopedic trauma surgery would induce NET production with mtDNA as a structural component. Methods: Neutrophils were isolated 8 trauma patients requiring orthopedic surgery postinjury and up to 5 days postoperatively. Four healthy volunteers provided positive and negative controls. Total hip replacement patients acted as an uninjured surgical control group. Neutrophil extracellular traps were visualized with DNA (Hoechst 33342TM/Sytox Green/MitoSox/MitoTracker) stains using live cell fluorescence microscopy with downstream quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of DNA composition. Results: Neutrophil extracellular traps were present after injury in all 8 trauma patients. They persisted for 5 days postoperatively. Delayed surgery resulted in NET resolution, but they reformed postoperatively. Total hip replacement patients developed NETs postoperatively, which resolved by day 5. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of NET-DNA composition revealed that NETs formed after injury and surgery were made of mtDNA with no detectable nuclear DNA component. Conclusions: Neutrophil extracellular traps formed after major trauma and subsequent surgery contain mtDNA and represent a novel marker of heightened innate immune activation. They could be considered when timing surgery after trauma to prevent systemic NET-induced inflammatory complications.

Background: Muscle hernias are uncommon clinical conditions with no uniform solution of repair. Biocompatible mesh allows for repair of hernias without the donor site morbidity and complications from direct repair under tension. Methods: Over a 6-month period at a Level 1 Trauma centre, four consecutive symptomatic muscle hernias were identified, two in the forearm and two in the lower limb. Three resulted from high-speed motorbike accidents, one from a mining accident. All patients had hernia repair at a minimum of 4 months post accident. A 10×15cm×1.0mm sheet of acellular collagen matrix was fashioned to fit as an underlay of the fascia defect. Patients were clinically followed at the 2-, 6-, 12- and 26-week mark. Final phone contact was made 18 months post-operatively. Results: All patients were pleased with their cosmetic and functional outcomes. All patients returned to work and sport 3 months after reconstruction. Conclusion: Symptomatic hernias as a result of trauma can be safely reconstructed with a biological mesh implant. This approach can prevent complications from previously described methods and return to active lifestyles with good results. © 2013 Royal Australasian College of Surgeons.

© 2014 The British Editorial Society of Bone & Joint Surgery. There is a high rate of mortality in elderly patients who sustain a fracture of the hip. We aimed to determine the rate of preventable mortality and errors during the management of these patients. A 12 month prospective study was performed on patients aged > 65 years who had sustained a fracture of the hip. This was conducted at a Level 1 Trauma Centre with no orthogeriatric service. A multidisciplinary review of the medical records by four specialists was performed to analyse errors of management and elements of preventable mortality. During 2011, there were 437 patients aged > 65 years admitted with a fracture of the hip (85 years (66 to 99)) and 20 died while in hospital (86.3 years (67 to 96)). A total of 152 errors were identified in the 80 individual reviews of the 20 deaths. A total of 99 errors (65%) were thought to have at least a moderate effect on death; 45 reviews considering death (57%) were thought to have potentially been preventable. Agreement between the panel of reviewers on the preventability of death was fair. A larger-scale assessment of preventable mortality in elderly patients who sustain a fracture of the hip is required. Multidisciplinary review panels could be considered as part of the quality assurance process in the management of these patients.

Purpose The definition and use of the term "polytrauma" is inconsistent and lacks validation. This article describes the historical evolution of the term and geographical differences in its meaning, examines the challenges faced in defining it adequately in the current context, and summarizes where the international consensus process is heading, in order to provide the trauma community with a validated and universally agreed upon definition of polytrauma. Conclusion A lack of consensus in the definition of "polytrauma" was apparent. According to the international consensus opinion, both anatomical and physiological parameters should be included in the definition of polytrauma. An Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) based anatomical definition is the most practical and feasible given the ubiquitous use of the system. Convincing preliminary data show that two body regions with AIS >2 is a good marker of polytrauma-better than other ISS cutoffs, which could also indicate monotrauma. The selection of the most accurate physiological parameters is still underway, but they will most likely be descriptors of tissue hypoxia and coagulopathy. © 2014 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Copyright © 2014 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. BACKGROUND: The Denver and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scores have been used widely to describe the epidemiology of postinjury multiple-organ failure; however, differences in these scores make it difficult to compare incidence, duration, and mortality of multiple-organ failure. The study aim was to compare the performance of the Denver and SOFA scores with respect to the outcomes of mortality, intensive care unit length of stay (ICU LOS), and ventilator days.METHODS: A 60-month prospective epidemiologic study was undertaken at an Australian Level I trauma center. Data were collected on trauma patients that met inclusion criteria (ICU admission, Injury Severity Score [ISS] 9 15, age 9 18 years, head Abbreviated Injury Scale [AIS] score G 3, survival for 948 hours). Demographics, ISS, physiologic parameters, SOFA and Denver scores, and outcome data were prospectively collected. Sensitivity/specificity and receiver operating characteristic curve were calculated for both scores. Analysis was also completed for a Day 3 postinjury SOFA and Denver score.RESULTS: A total of 140 patients met the inclusion criteria (mean [SD] age, 47 [21] years; ISS, 30; male, 69%; mortality rate, 6%; mean [SD] ICU LOS, 9 [7] days; mean [SD] ventilation period, 6 [7] days). There was no difference in the score performance predicting mortality. Day 3 SOFA score of 4 or greater outperformed the Denver score of greater than 3 when predicting ICU LOS and ventilator days (area under the curve, 0.83 vs. 0.69, 0.86 vs. 0.73, respectively). The SOFA score was more sensitive and the Denver score was more specific when predicting mortality, ICU LOS, and ventilator days.CONCLUSION: Both scores had similar performance predicting mortality; however, the Day 3 SOFA score outperforms the Denver score when predicting ICU LOS and ventilator days. Either score could be superior based on whether one is seeking to optimize specificity or sensitivity. It is important to note that these findings are in a non-head-injured population and that there are practical difficulties using the SOFA in head-injured patients.LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic study, level II.

Aims To describe the costs of acute trauma admissions for children aged =15 years in trauma centres; to identify predictors of higher treatment costs and quantify differences in actual and state-wide average cost in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Method Admitted trauma patient data provided by 12 trauma centres was linked with financial data for 2008-2009. Demographic, injury details and injury severity scores (ISS) were obtained from trauma registries. Individual patient costs, Australian Refined Diagnostic Related Groups (AR-DRG) and state-wide average costs were obtained. Actual costs incurred by each hospital were compared with state-wide AR-DRG average costs. Multivariate multiple linear regression identified predictors of cost. Results There were 3493 patients with a total cost of AUD$20.2 million. Falls (AUD$6.7 million) and road trauma (AUD$4.4 million) had the highest total expenditure. The reduction in cost between ISS < 9 compared to ISS 9-12 and ISS > 12 was significant (P < 0.0001). The median cost of injury increased with every additional body region injured (P < 0.0001). For each additional day spent in hospital, there was an increased cost of AUD$1898 and patients admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU) cost AUD$7358 more than patients not admitted to ICU. The total costs incurred by trauma centres were AUD$1.4 million above the NSW peer group average cost estimates. Conclusions The high financial cost of paediatric patient treatment highlights the need to ensure prevention remains a priority in Australia. Hospitals tasked with providing trauma care should be appropriately funded and future funding models should consider trauma severity. © 2013 The Authors. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health © 2013 Paediatrics and Child Health Division (Royal Australasian College of Physicians).

The introduction of Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine - Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT) for diagnosis coding in emergency departments (EDs) in New South Wales (NSW) has implications for injury surveillance abilities. This study aimed to assess the consequences of its introduction, as implemented as part of the ED information system in NSW, for identifying road trauma-related injuries in EDs. It involved a retrospective analysis of road trauma-related injuries identified in linked police, ED and mortality records during March 2007 to December 2009. Of all SNOMED CT codes in the principal provisional diagnosis field, between 53.7% and 78.4% referred to the type of injury or symptom experienced by the individual. Of the road users identified by police, 3.2% of vehicle occupants, 6% of motorcyclists, 10.0% of pedal cyclists and 5.2% of pedestrians were identified using SNOMED CT codes in the principal provisional diagnosis field. The introduction of SNOMED CT may provide flexible terminologies for clinicians. However, unless carefully implemented in information systems, its flexibility can lead to mismatches between the intention and actual use of defined data fields. Choices available in SNOMED CT to indicate symptoms, diagnoses, or injury mechanisms need to be controlled and these three concepts need to be retained in separate data fields to ensure a clear distinction between their classifications in the ED.

BACKGROUND: Themanagement of patientswith femoral shaft fractures (FSFs) is often a decisionmaking dilemma (damage-control orthopedics vs. early total care), with equivocal evidence. The comprehensive, population-based epidemiology of patients with FSF is unknown. The purpose of this prospective study was to describe the epidemiology of patientswith FSF, with special focus on patient physiology and timing of surgery. METHODS: A 12-month prospective population-based study was performed on consecutive patients with FSF in an area with 850,000 population including all ages and prehospital deaths. Patient demographics, mechanism, Injury Severity Score (ISS), shock parameters (systolic blood pressure, base deficit and lactate), transfusion requirement, fracture type [Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteosynthesefragen/Orthopaedic Trauma Association classification (OA/OTA)], comorbidities, procedures, and outcomes were recorded. Patients hemodynamic status was described as stable, borderline, unstable, and "in extremis." RESULTS: Atotal of 126 patients (21 per 100,000 per year)with 136 femur fractures (62%male; age, 38 [28] years; ISS, 20 [19]; 51%multiple injuries) were identified in the region. Sixty patients (48.4%) sustained a high-energy injury with 19 (31.1%) of these being polytrauma patients (ISS, 28 [12]; systolic blood pressure, 98 [39]; base deficit, 6.5 [5.8]; lactate 4 [2]).Fifteen polytrauma patients (94%) required massive transfusion (12 [12] U of packed red blood cells, 8 [5] fresh frozen plasma, 1 [0.4] platelet, 13 [8] cryoprecipitate). Twenty-one patients (16.7%) died at the prehospital setting (3.5 per 100,000 per year). From the 105 hospital admissions, 68.3% was stable (14.3 per 100,000 per year), 8.7% was borderline (1.8 per 100,000 per year), 4.0% was unstable (0.8 per 100,000 per year) and 2.4%(0.5 per 100,000 per year)was in extremis. Six patients (5.7%) died. The length of stay (LOS) was 18 (15) days, and the intensive care unit LOS was 5 (6) days. Fourty-five patients sustained a low-energy injury that had in 85%of casesmultiple comorbidities. Eight low-energy patients needed 3 (1) transfusions, and none of the patients died. The LOS was 15 (11) days. CONCLUSION: Patients with low-energy FSF have a hospital admission rate similar to the patients with high-energy FSF. Sixty-eight percent of patients with FSF are complicated (open, compromised physiology, multiple injuries, bilateral, elderly with comorbidities, etc.), requiring major resources and highly specialized care. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiology study, level III. Copyright © 2013 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.