Professor Susan Ledger

In many classrooms across the globe, students are expected to comprehend and produce handwritten and computer-generated texts as soon as they start school. As we progress towards digitalisation in education, it has become necessary to understand the effects of writing modality on students¿ literacy performance and development. The current meta-analysis integrates findings from 22 international studies involving 6168 participants, comparing the effects of handwriting and keyboarding on the writing and reading performance of primary-aged students. Moderator analyses were executed to determine if grade level, keyboarding experience, timed measurement of letter writing, types of tasks measuring letter writing fluency, and study design moderated modality effects on writing outcomes. Results revealed a significant effect size when comparing writing quality between handwriting and keyboarding, with students producing better quality passages via handwriting than keyboarding (ES = 0.53). Results also revealed that only grade level significantly moderated the effect size for letter writing fluency and written word production. Findings indicated that handwriting and keyboarding practices are associated with improvements on specific reading skills in primary education, with no clear superiority of modality. We discuss implications for literacy research and teaching both locally and globally.

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) results have become synonymous with quality benchmarking, determining standards and comparing performance among 15-year-old students in countries around the globe. Concern, however, exists with the utility and consequential validity of the newest measure to the suite of the OECD¿s PISA tests: its global competence measure. This study continues our examination of the global competence measure by deconstructing how the OECD frames it within the first global competence rankings, which are based on PISA 2018 data. Our study uses Derrida¿s technique of deconstructing texts to critique the five specific claims that the OECD used to underpin the importance of its measures in PISA- policy orientation, innovative concept of literacy, relevance to lifelong learning, regularity, and breadth of coverage. Our analysis exposes the measure¿s silences, unquestioned assumptions and inconsistencies. The aporia evident in the text is of concern for educational policy makers around the globe as it perpetuates global messaging that reinforces dominant discourses and continues to ignore contextual differences. We call for continued critique of the global competence measure and recommend that hyperbole be replaced by contextualisation of any differences it might detect.

In today's fast-paced digital world, keyboard-based writing has become a key component of daily communication, with students engaging in keyboarding early in their school trajectories. Nonetheless, there's a lack of systematic studies investigating individual-level factors impacting keyboard-based writing and relationships with the writing instruction typically provided in primary school settings. Using multilevel modelling the current study examined student-level predictors of keyboard-based writing quality and fluency in Year 2 Australian children (N = 544), including keyboarding automaticity, spelling, reading skills, executive functioning, writing attitudes, gender; and classroom-level (N = 47) variables predicting keyboard-based writing, such as teachers¿ preparation and instructional practices for writing. Results revealed that keyboarding automaticity, spelling, word reading, general attitudes toward writing, and gender were uniquely related to compositional quality. Keyboarding automaticity, word reading, and gender were also uniquely related to compositional fluency. Results also showed that female students outperformed their male peers in keyboarding automaticity, compositional quality and fluency, but also on attitudes toward writing and reading comprehension. For classroom-level factors, findings showed time teaching keyboarding positively related to compositional fluency and time teaching handwriting negatively related to compositional quality and fluency. Interactions were also found between gender and time teaching keyboarding, teaching revision and planning strategies, and specific student-level factors. The novel findings from this study suggest that, to support Year 2 students¿ keyboard-based writing, attention must be placed on multiple components predicting students¿ writing performance.

There is a strong body of research showing associations between handwriting automaticity and children¿s writing performance. However, less is known about keyboarding automaticity and young students¿ writing performance. We investigated the relationship between handwriting and keyboarding automaticity and writing performance in both modalities in a sample of 49 students, as well as children¿s attitudes toward writing in each modality. We also examined the frequency and the nature of the teaching strategies implemented to support children¿s writing development at school, and the writing practices and support that children reported experiencing at home. Our findings showed statistically significant associations between letter writing automaticity in both modalities and the quality and the length of Year 2 children¿s handwritten and keyboarded texts. Results further suggested statistically significant moderate to strong associations between all handwriting and keyboarding variables assessed. While our findings concur with research stressing the importance of preparing students to become ¿hybrid¿ writers by mastering both handwritten and keyboarding modalities, they also stress the need to examine contextual factors, such as teaching and home writing practices, to gain a more comprehensive view of factors impacting children¿s writing acquisition and development.

Despite evidence promoting simulation platforms as effective modes of learning, virtual simulation is underutilised in Australian Initial Teacher Education (ITE) programs, and as such, casts doubt on the sustainability of next generation simulation platforms. As a case example, we present findings from a systematic review of the literature on the benefits and limitations of Second Life as one of the most widely adopted simulation platforms used in ITE. We reveal salient issues from the literature on Second Life in teacher education that may provide key insight into the sustainability of future simulation platforms in ITE. Grossman's (2009) Pedagogies of practice are used to frame the discussion and offer insight into the opportunities and challenges for educators facilitated by simulation platforms. We recommend broad-based research to capture the transformative pedagogical qualities of simulation platforms and call for an exploration into education policies that both hinder and help the adaptation of next generation simulation platforms within initial teacher education.

This scoping review examines studies using eye tracking technology to monitor learning and performance in virtual or mixed reality settings. The aim of this review is to describe the various ways in which eye tracking devices have been deployed in relation to key aspects of virtual reality and mixed reality environments, list the eye tracking measures most salient to such environments and identify emergent patterns in the findings that the eye tracking data in the studies reviewed have brought to light. Drawing on these findings, an analytical framework for attending to and analysing eye tracking data is proposed and recommendations for future research using eye tracking to optimise learning and performance within virtual reality and mixed reality environments are discussed.

The benefits of micro-teaching (pre-service teachers practicing their teaching skills with small groups of peers or students) are well documented. However, the overcrowding of the teacher education curriculum, in part due to regulatory mandates, led many initial teacher education (ITE) programs to abandon using micro-teaching. The focus of this study was to understand the experiences of pre-service teachers who are engaging in real-time simulation technology as a new form of micro-teaching. The analysis of our findings indicated that the use of the mixed-reality learning environments (MRLEs) showed promise in helping build candidate self-confidence and preparing novices for their first ¿real¿ teaching practicum. MRLEs appear to be particularly useful for assisting with developing confidence, planning for diverse learners, understanding personalizing pedagogy and engaging with classroom management. We argue the importance of micro-teaching ¿2.0¿ as a strategy to ¿practice before prac¿ and call for increased inclusion of simulation within ITE programs.

Policy makers in the US and several other countries are recommending that more schools offer an International Baccalaureate (IB) programme. However, little is known about the challenges that IB programmes present for teaching and learning particularly those meeting national curriculum. In this study, we examined the challenges of the IB¿s Middle Years Programme (MYP), the least understood and researched of the IB programmes. Using a qualitative case study design, we conducted in-depth and semi-structured interviews with school leaders (n=7) and teachers (n=10) from three schools in Australia that previously offered the MYP. We used thematic analysis to generate the findings and the IB¿s Standards and Practice framework to organize the reporting of findings. Participants shared perceived challenges related to philosophical factors, organizational dilemmas and complexities with integrating the MYP with Australia¿s national curriculum. Understanding the organizational and leadership challenges that schools may face when offering the MYP can help policy makers promote the necessary conditions for successful program implementation.

Education interruption can influence educational outcomes for students, particularly those already experiencing disadvantage. Little is known about how education interruption caused by COVID-19 has influenced the literacy learning of Australian students. This article provides insights into the impact of COVID-19 related education interruption on writing instruction of primary school aged children from the perspectives of their teachers. Drawing on data from a single-stage mixed-methods survey tool, it explores extent of perception of an impact of COVID-19 writing instruction in Australia, as well as capturing data on the nature of this perceived impact. As expected, the COVID-19 pandemic had an impact on writing instruction in the majority of cases, with impact typically perceived to be negative, though for some respondents, an unexpected benefit of the disruption was the collaborative response of educators and education systems. The diverse facets of the nature of this perceived impact were identified by respondents, some of which were related to context and home affordances, with findings highlighting how uneven levels of parental and technological resourcing at home can support or impede student learning of writing skills. The findings can be drawn upon to mitigate barriers to the teaching of writing during times of education interruption.

This research explores how editorial advisory board members across four highly ranked international higher education¿focused journals understand higher education internationalization generally, and internationalization of the curriculum (IoC) specifically. Notionally, as gatekeepers, editorial advisory board members hold a powerful strategic position in the scholarly debates that characterize an active discipline, and can indirectly assert a strong influence over the academic direction of the field(s) to which they belong. All editorial advisory members for the journals Higher Education, Studies in Higher Education, Higher Education Research & Development, and the Journal of Studies in International Education were invited to contribute to this research with 25 (N = 25, 30%) consenting to participate. Utilizing qualitative, semi-structured interviewing, participants discussed their views on higher education internationalization, IoC, and the importance of these in the contemporary university. Participants also discussed what dimensions of IoC need to be further addressed in higher education discourses and research, and opportunities and challenges they foresee concerning higher education internationalization now and into the future. Findings reveal, for participants, internationalization continues to be perceived as a multivocal, largely Anglo-European, and neoliberal enterprise which is at a crossroad, and needs to be reimagined for the betterment of all in society. Collectively, participants draw attention to a lack of criticality and problematization within higher education internationalization discourses, and highlighted the need for research, scholarship, and academic leaders to expand the focus of IoC to address future global challenges and needs.

Drawing on an autoethnographic inquiry we present a first-person, narrative account of a mathematics teacher¿s experience of developing an ethically responsible teaching practice. Reflective commentary on narrative vignettes illustrates the teacher¿s inquiry in the role of researcher as transformative learner. Inspired by transformative learning theory, he engaged in critical self-reflection on his moments of teaching, which prompted him to switch from the teacher¿s point of view and pay heed to his student¿s meaning perspective. This transformation of perspective enabled him to avoid conflict by negotiating a deal with the young resistant learner¿¿a rebel kid¿¿to generate mutual respect, focus on values, and successfully adjust to the student¿s learning trajectory. The result of this inquiry suggests that endeavouring to teach from students¿ points of view is important not only for engaging meaningfully in an educative relationship but also for enhancing the sense of ethical responsibility of both teachers and students.

TeachLivE¿, a mixed-reality simulated classroom technology, has been used in initial teacher education programs to provide repeatable experiential learning opportunities for students now for more than a decade and in more than 80 universities worldwide. However, no broad scale investigation has been conducted into how the platform has been used or what research has been generated as a result. The aim of this study is to provide insight into the types of TeachLivE¿ research carried out since its inception and to identify trends and potential gaps in this research. Peer-reviewed academic primary research publications¿journal articles (23), conference proceedings (12), and thesis dissertations (20)¿were reviewed for participants, research methods, analysis, research design, data collection tools, and design approaches. Of the 102 articles identified as relevant, ¿instructional skills development¿ and ¿integration of TeachLivE¿ in teacher education¿ were the most commonly researched topics. Findings indicate that preservice teachers were the most commonly studied group of participants, research methods were predominately qualitative, single-subject experimental research design was employed most often, and the most used data collection tools were surveys and observation. These findings highlight that the range of topics is increasing, with studies on in-service teachers in school-based contexts beginning to emerge as a new area of interest. This systematic review has implications for researchers and the developers of TeachLivE¿. It provides valuable insight and recommendations for future studies in this emerging teacher education field, where technology is not simply used ¿in the classroom¿ but rather ¿as the classroom.¿

The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has highlighted a ¿vicious cycle of decline¿ in rural, regional and remote (RRR) regions, with significant inequalities in educational outcomes between rural and urban areas. However, interventions have not resulted in transformative or lasting improvements to education in rural contexts. This paper presents a cross-comparative country analysis of current global policy on RRR education. We used a policy analysis framework to interrogate national policy texts concerning teacher education for RRR contexts in three countries-Australia, South Africa and Mexico. A rigorous selection process of the literature yielded 17 key policy texts, which were examined for the influences, practices, language and outcomes relating to teacher education preparation for RRR locales. Findings highlighted a legacy of historical influences and a metrocentric bias in policy texts, with limited examples of assets-based education. We argue that these factors may be perpetuating the significant and persistent disadvantage in RRR education. We recommend an alternative policy discourse that recognises the productivities and potentialities of an assets-based approach within the local context, where school leaders and teachers are positioned as central change agents in RRR education.

While the International Baccalaureate¿s Middle Years Programme (MYP) is growing in popularity in Australia and across the globe, few studies have examined the benefits and challenges of this IB programme for supporting student learning. Using a qualitative case study design of three Australian schools that formerly offered the MYP, we investigated teacher and school leader perceptions of the MYP for promoting student learning. Perceived benefits included high achievement and skill development through the MYP¿s emphasis on inquiry-based learning and real-world relevance; criterion-referenced assessments; and a healthy balance between core and elective learning areas. Challenges for students stemmed primarily from operational difficulties and possible systems-level constraints impacting teachers, including integration of the Australian Curriculum with the MYP; ability to meet the MYP¿s demands; confusion about MYP terminology and grading systems; and understanding interdisciplinary units. The findings suggest that MYP Coordinators and school leaders play a critical role in ensuring that schools realise the benefits of the MYP for student learning by providing systems-level support to optimise its benefits.

International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme (MYP) is recognized for its rigor, inquiry-based learning, and development of academic skills. While it is growing in popularity worldwide, some schools have discontinued the program. Literature on the reasons why schools discontinue the MYP is limited. Using a qualitative case study design, we examined the perspectives of school leaders, former MYP coordinators, and experienced MYP teachers at three private and public Australian schools to find out why they discontinued the MYP. Our findings add to the limited literature base on the topic¿they reveal schools discontinued the program due to challenges from various systems-level constraints, leadership issues, school organizational structures, and individual teacher challenges. Although our small sample prevents generalizability, our findings generate novel insights and hypotheses that can inform school decision making and future research about the sustainability of the MYP.

In this paper, authors focus on how internationalisation is defined, interpreted, and responded to by Universities in Australia and Canada, two decades after de Wit¿s (Strategies for the internationalisation of higher education. A comparative study of Australia, Canada, Europe and the USA. European Association for International Education, Amsterdam, 1995) comparison of internationalisation in four higher education contexts. Guided by humanitarian factors that impact internationalisation in higher education contexts, authors find convergence and divergence with de Wits earlier study. A critical policy lens is employed to further analyse, probe and pose critical questions related to people, philosophy, place, processes, and power (5Ps). Authors argue that the intent (philosophy) of institutions (place) to internationalise (process) are impacted by the interests (power) of individuals and institutions (people) and these often conflict with descriptions and ideals of internationalisation. The authors offer conscientious internationalisation (CI) to recalibrate discourse and practices embedded in the internationalisation of higher education. CI prioritises ethics over markets. It is characterized as practices and processes informed by constitutive principles and ethical practices that amplify equity, reciprocity, and integrity.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explore the perception, readiness and change involved in the implementation of Education 4.0 within the region of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) among policymakers, enablers (lecturers) and receivers (students), within globalisation, referred here as the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Design/methodology/approach: This study used a mixed method research design using quantitative data from a Likert scale of 1¿5, involving: (1) Not Ready; (2) Ready; (3) No Sure; (4) Quite Ready and (5) Extremely Ready. Open-ended questions formed the qualitative approach taken by the researchers to uncover the richness of the respondents' perceptions of Education 4.0. The test items reliability index of 0.744 drew quantitative data from the perspective of the educational policymakers, enablers and receivers to reveal their collective definition of each construct (knowledge, industry and humanity). Findings: This study has exposed the importance of knowing and capturing the interrelated components of an educational ecosystem that exists in higher education (HE) within the ASEAN region. The personal readiness of respondents towards Education 4.0 is very high; yet concern was raised about the financial and managerial readiness of institutions across the region. Originality/value: This study highlighted the dynamic nature of the HE ecosystem and the connectivity between the elements of Education 4.0 ¿ knowledge, industry and humanity within the ASEAN region.

Whilst there exists a plethora of research about the benefits of reading aloud on children's literacy development and a range of government reports highlighting the positive investment return on early intervention strategies such as reading aloud, most literature is presented from an adult perspective. Limited research exists on children's attitudes toward being read to at home or school or the frequency of reading aloud practices that occur within these contexts. This mixed method study examines reading aloud practices in schools (N=21) and homes (N=220). It captures the attitude toward reading aloud practices from the viewpoint of 220 children aged between 6-12 years of age (Grade 1-6) across a representative range of diverse school contexts in Western Australian. The findings identify specific reading aloud practices, patterns of frequency and perceived barriers to reading aloud in the classroom and at home. The study provides support for the practice of reading aloud to be continued past the period of acquisition and independent reading. It raises concern about the low frequency of reading aloud practices at home and school and the early signs of a literacy. It also highlights the limited attention to affective domains of reading that occur in schools.

Studies on internships within initial teacher education have existed in literature since the early 1900s, they have espoused the benefits of experiential learning or critiqued the variance available in terms of structure, length of time and purpose. However, little research on teacher internships has been reported within a policy context. This study employs a modified 'policy trajectory' framework to capture the impact of teacher internship models emerging from policy reform in Australia driven by the National Partnership Agreement on Improving Teacher Quality Program (NPTQ). It highlights how policy contexts and practices are inextricably interconnected and influenced by key policy 'threads' related to people, philosophy, place, processes and power (5Ps). Significant benefits of internships are revealed. Variations in resourcing, influence and local conditions evidence enactment of NPTQ resulted in uneven and potentially inequitable outcomes. The authors call for more research, transparency and enhanced accountability for government investment for internships.

International Baccalaureate (IB) programmes are growing rapidly worldwide, driven in part by their global reputation and concept-driven, inquiry-based approach to teaching and learning. This thematic review of a range of literature sources examines the impact of IB programmes on teaching and learning, highlighting trends, challenges, and benefits. Findings of the review revealed that most of the studies, both qualitative and quantitative, examined stakeholders¿ perspectives or self-reported experiences of IB programmes; a very small number used research designs that control for confounding factors or allow causal inferences to be drawn. A wide range of stakeholders report that IB programmes develop research and critical thinking skills, intercultural appreciation and global awareness, as well as cultivate collaborative working cultures and creative pedagogical practices among teachers. Challenges include extra demands on teachers for lesson planning and assessment, additional stress for teachers and students, and competing demands and expectations with national requirements. Recommendations are provided which may guide future research endeavours.

While children benefit from exposure to reading aloud at home, relatively little is known about parents' perceptions of the practice. Reading aloud supports development of a range of reading and cognitive skills, provides a valuable opportunity for focused interaction between parents and children, and enhances children's attitudes toward reading. This paper reports on data from the mixed-methods 2016 Western Australian Study in Reading Aloud collected from consenting parents at 14 primary schools. Findings explore frequency of reading aloud to children at home, parental attitudes toward the practice, duration of reading sessions, and perceived barriers to reading aloud. Findings give educators insight into the home literacy learning context, as well as illustrating the barriers contemporary families perceive in supporting their children's literacy development at home.

This study examines access to International Baccalaureate schools in Australia. It is important to examine whether, as a highly regarded form of rigorous academic education, IB programmes are available to a wide range of students. We examine the location of schools in Australia that offer one or more of the IB Primary Years Programme, Middle Years Programme or Diploma Programme, their fees and admissions policies, and what types of students they enrol. The findings show that most schools in Australia that offer any of these three IB programmes are located in affluent communities of large cities, are privately-funded, charge moderate to high fees, and enrol mostly students from privileged socioeconomic backgrounds.

The present paper fills a void in the literature by focusing on curriculum policy processes in schools that are both remote and international. It is based on an analysis of the complex interrelationships between international and remote education; between ¿the global¿ and ¿the local¿. It maps the dynamics of curriculum policy processes in three remote international schools in Indonesia and their journey in adopting the International Baccalaureate Primary Years Program (IBPYP). Whilst the study reported was primarily focused on how teachers made meaning of the IBPYP and the micro-politics involved, the significance of accelerating globalization required an examination of accompanying national, regional and global influences embedded in the complex curriculum policy processes. The concept of a ¿policy trajectory¿ provided a framework for the research. After analysis of findings, a model was constructed to capture the dynamics of curriculum policy processes along the entire trajectory from global to local levels.