Associate Professor Ifte Ahmed

Through 12 case studies from Australia, Bangladesh, Haiti, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and the USA, this book focuses on the housing reconstruction process after an earthquake, tsunami, cyclone, flood or fire. Design of post-disaster housing is not simply replacing the destroyed house but, as these case studies highlight, a means to not only build a safer house but also a more resilient community; not to simply return to the same condition as before the disaster, but an opportunity for building back better. The book explores two main themes: Housing reconstruction is most successful when involving the users in the design and construction process. Housing reconstruction is most effective when it is integrated with community infrastructure, services and the means to create real livelihoods. The case studies included in this book highlight work completed by different agencies and built environment professionals in diverse disaster-affected contexts. With a global acceleration of natural disasters, often linked to accelerating climate change, there is a critical demand for robust housing solutions for vulnerable communities. This book provides professionals, policy makers and community stakeholders working in the international development and disaster risk management sectors, with an evidence-based exploration of how to add real value through the design process in housing reconstruction. Herein then, the knowledge we need to build, an approach to improve our processes, a window to understanding the complex domain of post-disaster housing reconstruction.

This chapter compares two recent housing reconstruction case studies to illustrate how addressing the intersection of the sources of vulnerability and the impacts of a disaster can frame the processes of long-term recovery. The case study communities, a village in Sri Lanka and a city in the United States, were both severely impacted by a (un)natural disaster after long periods of poverty and neglect. The case studies have been selected to demonstrate the complexity of housing reconstruction and the importance of approaching reconstruction challenges through the lenses of "more than a roof overhead.".

Purpose: While there are many such toolkits on community-based participatory methods, the key considerations and principles of conducting a participatory capacity and vulnerability analysis (PCVA) are less covered, yet they are central to the effective conduct of a PCVA, the reason why this paper focuses on such issues. Design/methodology/approach: This paper is derived from a toolkit that was produced for Oxfam Australia. Disasters and climate change are major drivers of poverty and significantly affect the communities that development programs of Oxfam Australia aim to assist. Recognising the importance of building its organisational capacity to address these risks, Oxfam Australia initiated and commissioned the production of a PCVA toolkit to support disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation programs; the production of the toolkit was led by the author. The methodology of producing the toolkit consisted of discussions with experts and a review of similar toolkits. Findings: Details of the PCVA process and how to conduct one in a community setting are provided including PCVA concepts, briefing, logistics and management and principles of working with communities. Importantly, the different stages of conducting a PCVA are explained, and some selected tools are presented as illustrative examples. In conclusion, the importance of the PCVA considerations and principles are reaffirmed vis-à-vis the sensitivity and soft skills required in a low-income developing country setting. Originality/value: The participatory development approach, which the toolkit follows, has been widely advocated for the past few decades and most non-governmental organisations involved in community development espouse this approach. Consequently, a wide range of participatory development toolkits have been developed, many of which relate to disasters and climate change. The PCVA toolkit discussed in this paper draws on the repertoire of toolkits already available and used over a long time. Nonetheless, effort was given to assembling a range of tools that were most suitable for the purpose of this particular PCVA toolkit. Instead of focussing on the tools, which are available from the freely downloadable toolkit and available in the public domain, in this paper, the PCVA process and its main principles are explained, and the key considerations to carry out an effective PCVA is discussed. Perhaps even more than the actual tools, these considerations and an understanding of the PCVA principles are significant because they underpin the utilisation of the toolkit.

Vanuatu is one of the countries in the world most at risk from natural hazards. This Pacific island country is frequently struck by ferocious tropical cyclones, such as Cyclone Harold in April 2020, causing massive devastation to the housing sector; nearly 21,000 houses were destroyed and damaged by the cyclone. Drawing from the literature and communications with local stakeholders, five main thematic aspects were analysed: nature of the impact of cyclones on housing; key challenges for post-cyclone housing reconstruction in Vanuatu; cyclone-resistant construction approaches; post-Harold housing reconstruction initiatives; and key opportunities. Of particular significance is the dilemma posed by traditional versus ¿modern¿ approaches to design and construction for post-disaster reconstruction. There are many guidelines available for cyclone-resistant housing, but they face barriers to dissemination and application, and whether they are necessarily appropriate in the cultural context of Vanuatu is examined. Vanuatu faces a difficult situation in the aftermath of Cyclone Harold in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, and it can be expected that the reconstruction will be a protracted process.

This paper reports on a project that explores the opportunities and challenges for compliance with safe building codes for disaster resilience, focusing on two countries-Bangladesh and Nepal. Recent disasters in both countries highlight a significant problem of non-compliance with building codes. However, these disasters have brought institutional and community awareness of the importance of safe building codes, presenting a germane opportunity to explore the issues associated with compliance. Building codes do exist in the two countries, but due to socio-economic, political and cultural conditions compliance is generally lacking or limited, particularly in the large informal building sector. There is thus a need for understanding how these codes might be more widely adopted to enable disaster resilience. Collaboration between partner universities in these countries with experience in this field address: sharing the understanding that evidence-based knowledge is a critical component in the commitment to local action; improving institutional and community awareness of the importance of compliance with/barriers to enforcement of codes; fostering communities of collaborative practice; and developing local and international dissemination networks. A log-frame approach indicates the rationale, assumptions and expected outcomes of the project. The project is at a preliminary stage and this paper discusses the framework associated with the exploration of barriers and enablers to building codes compliance.

Purpose ¿ The purpose of this paper is to discuss the utility of a tool for assessing resilience of housing. After disasters, maximum resources are often allocated for housing reconstruction, and most initiatives on disaster resilient housing have arisen after disasters. With widespread claims by agencies of having ¿built back better¿, it is important to establish an evaluation framework that allows understanding to what extent resilience has been successfully achieved in such housing projects. This paper discusses such a tool developed by the authors. Design/methodology/approach ¿ In a study commissioned by the Australian Shelter Reference Group, the authors have developed an evaluation tool for assessing resilience in housing and tested it in several housing reconstruction projects in the Asia-Pacific region. Various evaluation frameworks were reviewed to develop the tool. An approach derived from the log frame was adapted in alignment with other key approaches. The tool is practical and targeted for agency staff involved in housing projects, evaluators of housing reconstruction projects and communities to assess their housing in terms of resilience. It comprises three main stages of an assessment process with guided activities at each stage. Findings ¿ The tool was tested in the Cook Islands and Sri Lanka, and the key findings of the test assessments are presented to demonstrate the prospects of the tool. While the case study projects all indicated achievement of a level of resilience, problems were evident in terms of designs issues and external factors. Originality/value ¿ Such a tool has the potential to be used more widely through advocacy to prioritise resilience in post-disaster housing reconstruction.

After the catastrophic 2009 bushfires in the state of Victoria, Australia, the State Government provided information and advice, short-term and temporary accommodation as well as financial assistance to bushfire-affected communities. A tension developed between quickly rebuilding housing and re-establishing known social and economic networks versus a slower and more deliberative process that focuses on long-term community outcomes. Whilst there was a widespread assumption that quick rebuilding would be beneficial, resulting in immediate pressure to do so, it became evident that many people were not prepared to, or even did not want to rebuild. Thus it became important to provide time and support for people to consider their options away from the immediate pressures to rebuild that are often inherent in post-disaster recovery processes. This became known as "holding the space" and included the introduction of interim supports such as building temporary villages and other supports which enable people to achieve appropriate interim accommodation without having to rebuild immediately. However, even two years after the bushfires a significant proportion of people remained undecided whether they wanted to rebuild or not. The post-bushfire experience pointed to a number of lessons including the importance of appropriate timing of post-disaster activities, careful targeting of financial assistance, need for developing better and lower cost interim housing options and pre-impact planning. Given the complex nature of rebuilding following a disaster, design professionals should focus not just on the final house, but also look at housing options that blur the distinction between temporary and permanent. Their designs should be quick to build, offer a good quality of life, be affordable for most and be flexible in design for future use.

This paper draws on research conducted after the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia, where more than 100,000 houses were built by various agencies following the massive disaster. The research reveals that the residents in Aceh rarely see their reconstruction houses as 'complete' and modify these houses to suit their personal needs and aspirations. The relationships between the global and regional forces that drive reconstruction agency housing procurement and production are explored, and compared with the outcomes of user-initiated modifications to the houses. From the hundreds of houses reviewed, here four houses are discussed in detail, built by the Asian Development Bank, representing a global paradigm, and Bank Mandiri, representing a regional paradigm. These houses were modified and extended to varying degrees by their residents, exemplifying the ways in which reconstruction agencies, perhaps inadvertently, empowered residents by enabling them to improve their own housing. The outcomes of this transformation process underscore the advantages of a hybrid between global and regional styles, and the desire of the reconstruction housing residents to recapture some of the local housing culture and reflect regional housing characteristics.

This paper describes the life cycle assessment and life cycle cost analysis of a typical Australian house designs. It evaluates the effect of selected alternative wall assemblages on environmental impacts and life cycle cost over the various life stages of buildings (i.e. construction, operations, maintenance and final disposal). A case study house was used as the base case for all the alternative wall assemblage designs. This paper also reports on alternative wall assemblage designs that were produced with variations in external wall cladding, insulation type and thickness, air gap thickness and position. Each design was varied such that it achieved a chosen star rating. Five exterior wall claddings were selected, typical of the Australian building industry. These claddings were brick, autoclave aerated concrete block, fibro-cement sheet, pine saw logs and weatherboard. The results were analyzed for the whole building on a whole life cycle basis in terms of economic and environmental impact. The implications of life cycle environmental impacts and life cycle costs were evaluated and the optimum assemblage design is reported using optimization algorithm. A set of best solution is found depending on factors: the model assumptions, range of environmental and economic indicators considered, and the chosen quantitative criteria.

Poverty and crime are significant problems in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Many of Dhaka's urban poor are forced to reside in informal settlements, which are typically characterised as 'breeding grounds of evil'. Getting rid of informal settlements is widely seen as the best way of reducing crime. This paper argues this characterisation is misleading and that the processes that generate and perpetuate crime and safety issues in Dhaka are largely external to informal settlements. Drawing on interviews with residents of informal settlements as well as key stakeholders in government and non-government services, this paper suggests that crime and insecurity are perpetuated through a top-down process driven by the powerful through a chain of networks and institutional linkages that capitalise on the extreme vulnerability of the urban poor who live in informal settlements. The findings indicate that until attention is focused on the structural and institutional factors that support these networks, the opportunity for broader, sustainable social change in Dhaka is limited. © 2013 Taylor & Francis.

Vietnam and Bangladesh are countries already impacted by weather-related extreme events. Scientific modelling projections indicate that climate change, and changes to climate variability, will increase risks for both countries in the future. Targeting this challenging contemporary agenda, this paper reflects on the lessons learned from a collaborative research project, funded by the Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research, which was carried out jointly in the Vietnamese city of Hu¿ and the Bangladeshi city of Satkhira. The focus on secondary cities was intentional as they face unique challenges - a combination of rapid growth and development, adverse climate-related impacts, and in many cases less institutional adaptive capacity than their primary city counterparts. Whilst numerous assessment tool kits already exist, these have typically been developed for rural or natural resource contexts. Therefore, the objective of this action research activity was to develop a flexible suite of participatory assessment tools and methodologies that were refined specifically for the urban context; as well as being easy to use by local practitioners at the city and neighbourhood scales. This paper summarizes the research and stakeholder engagement activity that was carried out before presenting the main findings from each of the case study cities (detailing both climate-related risks and potential adaptation options). This analysis is further extended to include a reflective critique of the assessment process, a comparative analysis of the activity carried out in the two case studies, and the 'South-South' learning process that occurred between project partners. Key findings are then distilled to put forward recommendations in support of climate change assessment activity in secondary cities across the Asia-Pacific region. © 2014 © 2014 Taylor & Francis.

Purpose: After the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, major resettlement programmes were implemented in the affected countries including Sri Lanka and India. New settlements were built from scratch on vacant land, which consisted of building new houses and provision of infrastructure and services. Some of these programmes in Sri Lanka and India were reviewed in an Australian Research Council (ARC) funded research and this paper presents and analyses some of the findings of the research. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach: The research is based on interviews of residents and representatives of agencies involved in planning and implementing the resettlement programmes, and on-site observations. The investigation examined critical aspects of settlement development including site planning, transport, drainage, water supply, sanitation, waste management and security. Findings: Very little site planning guidelines were available specifically for resettlement programmes; in both the case study countries, general planning guidelines were applied. Provision and management of infrastructure and services presents great challenges in developing countries as high capital investment and good technical skills for design, implementation and maintenance are required. Some of the resettlement schemes had the advantage of being centrally located and hence had access to schools, health centres and other facilities. However, others were in isolated locations and beneficiaries faced problems in accessing basic facilities. Drainage was a problem - most schemes did not have any surface drainage plan; low areas had not been elevated, slopes not levelled, and land not compacted before construction. Electricity and water supply had been provided in all the programmes, but conditions and quality varied. In many of the schemes, sanitation presented a problem. However, in Chennai, the sewage system worked well and this was one achievement all interview respondents praised. Solid waste management and security posed additional problems. Originality/value: In the global context of increasing frequency and intensity of disasters due to climate change, adequate planning and implementation of reconstruction and resettlement programmes has become more important than ever. In this regard, the lessons gained in this paper should be of value and can provide guidance to post-disaster resettlement programmes in developing countries. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

This paper explores the relationship between vulnerability and resilience in the context of informal settlements, using a case study of two barangays in a rural province in the Philippines. Central to the discussion in this paper is whether and how vulnerability and resilience can exist simultaneously. The authors first identify community vulnerability, which is explored through geographical, economic, and physical vulnerability. Another element involves land-related vulnerability characterised by unsustainable land use, poor urban planning, non-existence of building codes and weak land administration. Approximately sixty per cent of all properties in the case study areas are held in informal land tenures. Many of these informal settlers have established houses on land with a high hazard risk - for example, adjacent to rivers, on disused railway reserves and along road corridors. The result is they face the threat of eviction, and may have difficulty returning to their land after disasters.Qualitative analysis of households in the case study areas revealed that the strength of social relationships helps to reduce the vulnerability of the communities. A paradoxical relationship between vulnerability and resilience is evident. Strong community perceptions of their level of resilience to the impacts of disasters are supported by the social domains of the community. They have inbuilt resilience resulting from the perception of disasters as part of life, strong social bonds and government awareness of the validity of the informal settlements.

Scenario method is presented in the literature as a means for engaging heterogeneous stakeholder groups to explore climate change futures and to inform policy and planning for adaptation responses. We discuss a case study project investigating possible interactions between climate change impacts and a proposed major port expansion in Australia. The study engaged participants from the private sector, government and environmental groups, with input from college students from the local area. Semi-structured interviews and a scenario workshop were employed, creating individual space for expression of ideas, then a collaborative space for sharing these, exploring differences of perception and meaning, and developing a set of possible and plausible scenarios. Whilst the workshop resulted in consensus on key issues and proposed actions, intended to inform policy formation and planning, there was an unforeseen lack of short term follow up and of the groups working more closely together. We discuss the reasons for this through reflective critical analysis of both our own process and of contingent factors in the wider contextual environment. We conclude that the basic scenario approach is valuable, but does not itself act as a catalyst for effecting change when multiple agencies, interests and agendas and strong contingent factors are present. © 2012 Elsevier Inc.

In rural settlements of the floodplains in Bangladesh, an intrinsic element is the homestead. The homestead layout is defined by the courtyard, formed by the arrangement of dwelling units and ancillary buildings around a rectangular open space. The courtyard has important physical and functional characteristics derived from local climatic requirements and living patterns. However, particularly in this predominantly Muslim society, the cultural norm of maintaining women's privacy is an important factor behind the development of this archetypal space. Nonetheless, other ethnic communities in the floodplains also often have courtyards, suggesting that it is a regional archetype. The archetypal courtyard is now subject to transformation due to social, economic and environmental changes. If this trend continues, it would signal the loss of an important and long-lasting regional expression that has resulted from the blending of culture, climate and nature. © The Vernacular Architecture Group 2012.

The impact of the extreme heat wave that affected Melbourne, Australia, in two distinct phases in January and February 2009 was severe, with 374 (heat) and 173 (bushfire) excess deaths. Whilst the human health issues have been covered in detail in policy and academic arenas, much less attention has been paid to the adverse impacts on urban infrastructure. Analysis of this event, underpinned by participatory actor-based research, has shown that the impacts were experienced disproportionately across different infrastructure types. For water, telecommunications and airports, the impacts were relatively minor and the impact on rail transport and roads (and to a lesser extent, seaports) was of moderate significance, whereas research findings indicate that the electricity sector was found to be the most vulnerable. This paper focuses on the sectors that were worst impacted: electricity, rail and road transport. Commentary identifies the direct and indirect impacts of the heat event, including associated cascading effects, as well as considering actual and potential adaptation responses both before and after the event. Concluding, the authors reflect on the implications of the heat wave for urban resilience, emphasising the crucial importance of understanding the urban environment as a complex and interconnected system. © 2012 Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 galvanized world attention like no other natural disaster before. Unprecedented amounts of aid were given and a record number of international aid agencies were involved in relief and recovery operations. Major reviews of the response to the disaster have suggested that the immediate relief effort was better than expected. However, weaknesses in the longer term recovery work were identified within months of the disaster and yet the same weaknesses were being confirmed four and five years later. Even though many studies have been published on the tsunami disaster there are still many lessons to be learnt, particularly in relation to social recovery as distinct from the restoration of destroyed or damaged infrastructure. This paper presents an overview of the findings of a study that was conducted over a period of four years across five different tsunami-affected local areas of Sri Lanka and southern India. The study focused on lessons to be learnt in relation to rebuilding community, restoring livelihoods, recreating an appropriate tourism industry and providing relevant housing and planned settlements for disaster survivors. The paper argues that 'build back better' is possible, but only if 'asset replacement' strategies are replaced by integrated physical and social planning to address local needs in culturally appropriate ways. Much of what the authors advocate may seem to be little more than 'common sense' and many of our findings echo those of many other post-tsunami evaluations. Yet patient and well-integrated approaches to disaster recovery are all too rare in a world that is experiencing so many natural disasters. Because the 2004 tsunami evoked an unprecedented global response it is important to ensure that the lessons of the recovery effort are clearly learnt and this paper aims to convert research findings into a clear strategy for long-term social recovery. © 2012 Taylor & Francis.

Purpose: A set of guidelines widely agreed by the international humanitarian aid community, such as the Sphere Handbook, is currently lacking for permanent housing reconstruction in developing countries. The paper aims to address this gap by reviewing the field and presenting a set of selected examples that offer lessons for informing, developing and promoting wider good practice. Design/methodology/approach: An extensive literature review on post-disaster housing reconstruction in developing countries pointed to the significant impacts of disasters on housing in developing countries and the great challenges involved in the reconstruction process; it also allowed identifying efforts at framing good practice guidelines by humanitarian and other agencies. Findings: The paper finds that, while the review largely indicated the major challenges and shortcomings in the field, it also allowed identifying some examples of good practice and the reasons for their effectiveness. Originality/value: As argued here, there are a number of independent guidelines for post-disaster reconstruction in developing countries, but hardly any which are widely endorsed and can be followed by humanitarian agencies. The paper therefore draws together the key issues and examples of good practice as a basis for informing the development of guidelines. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

This paper presents concepts important for understanding the potential of sustainable low-income housing in Vietnam, with a focus on key environmental, socio-economic, and cultural dimensions that bear on its housing sector. It examines challenges for sustainable urban development in Hanoi and HCMC, Vietnam's two main cities. Recognising the current challenges in balancing affordability and sustainability, the study explores Vietnam's lack of adequate and affordable housing and the problem of its urban slums. Synergistic strategies suitable for the Vietnamese context are then suggested for sustainable low-income housing in these two cities.

Traditional rural housing is largely based on the use of locally available natural resources as prime building materials, usually in a process of self-help building undertaken by the community. Such housing is well adopted to a natural environment with widely available resources, and supports people's direct involvement in the construction of their dwellings. However, the advent of a cash economy and current scarcity of natural resources has greatly affected the self-help building process. In rural Bangladesh, affluent households are shifting to manufactured materials and skilled builders, and the quality of housing of low-income households is declining. For the latter, self-help is the only option, and recognition of this fact and of the increasing decline in the quality of their housing has prompted institutional intervention. This paper discusses the Grameen Bank's rural housing programme in Bangladesh which provides loans for manufactured building components for low-income rural households to build houses on a self-help basis. A review of this programme indicates some of its strengths and shortcomings in the context of scarcity of natural building materials and widespread poverty.