Professor Robert Melchers

Eco-efficient Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Infrastructures provides an updated state-of-the-art review on eco-efficient repair and rehabilitation of concrete infrastructure. The first section focuses on deterioration assessment methods, and includes chapters on stress wave assessment, ground-penetrating radar, monitoring of corrosion, SHM using acoustic emission and optical fiber sensors. Other sections discuss the development and application of several new innovative repair and rehabilitation materials, including geopolymer concrete, sulfoaluminate cement-based concrete, engineered cementitious composites (ECC) based concrete, bacteria-based concrete, concrete with encapsulated polyurethane, and concrete with super absorbent polymer (SAPs), amongst other topics. Final sections focus on crucial design aspects, such as quality control, including lifecycle and cost analysis with several related case studies on repair and rehabilitation. The book will be an essential reference resource for materials scientists, civil and structural engineers, architects, structural designers and contractors working in the construction industry.

Pitting is an important form of corrosion that often is responsible for the perforation of physical infrastructure such as pipelines, tanks, and vessels. This chapter discusses the structural and low-alloy steels such as those commonly employed in the offshore oil industry, for ships and for coastal infrastructure. It is also limited to pipelines and exposed to sea and other watery areas. The development of analytical models to represent the progression of pit depth with increased exposure time and as a function of influencing factors is outlined. The development is built on a very brief review of the extensive literature and research on nucleation, initiation, and early growth of pits. A summary is given of the principal factors known to influence pitting corrosion, including steel composition and water quality. Although electrochemistry lies at the heart of corrosion processes, much of the discussion in this chapter deals with engineering application aspects.

The basic concepts in structural reliability analysis using probability theory are overviewed and the important effect of structural deterioration is noted. For representation of material loss due to corrosion and for pitting corrosion appropriately accurate models are required. These should account for the many variables involved in natural environments. Recently introduced probabilistic phenomenological models for marine immersion corrosion are then described both for general and for pitting corrosion. These show that the nature of the corrosion process changes from being controlled by oxygen diffusion and later by anaerobic bacterial action. This change has important implications for longer-term prediction of general corrosion loss and for maximum pit depth. A summary is given also of the effects of steel composition, water velocity, salinity, pollution and season of first immersion.

Pitting corrosion of aluminium alloy AA5005-H34 immersed in natural sea water for up to 2 years is presented, together with new interpretations of the development of the pitting process over extended exposure periods. Trenching initiated at surface-located Fe-rich intermetallic (IM) particles. It occurred more extensively in sea water compared to atmospheric exposures. With increasing exposures, the pitting morphologies became more complex. Three types, i.e. hemispherical pits (Type 1), crystallographic pits (Type 2) and characteristic ¿petal¿-like pits (Type 3), were observed after 12 months. It is suggested that the formation of Type 2 and Type 3 pits occurs at an advanced corrosion stage, and are associated with large Fe-rich IM particles near the metal surface. The influence of marine growth on pitting was negligible.

Corrosion loss data from the 1957 NBS study for steels buried in a large variety of soils and exposed over 12¿17 years are re-interpreted, supported with estimates for scatter in the data. This shows that losses predominantly are consistent with the bi-modal trending pattern also previously observed for steel exposed in a variety of other environments. For short-term and low time of wetness exposures the trends are consistent with mode 1 of the bi-modal trend. These reinterpretations should permit development of better understanding of the factors important for short- and-long term corrosion trends and for improved modelling and prediction.

The structural service life of brittle material pipes with exterior corrosion pits is likely to depend on crack initiation and crack development and this may be influenced by pressure loading fluctuations and the possibility of material hydrogen embrittlement. Recently developed methods are used to estimate the cracking pattern, the failure state of the crack development from external pits and the rate of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking under fluctuating loadings. The effect of hydrogen from the surrounding environment on the cracking rate is formulated using a generalized form of Paris' law. The depth of cracks initiated from surface pits is estimated as a function of pipe age. A realistic example is presented and the results discussed.

16S rRNA gene profiling using a pipeline involving the Greengenes database revealed that bacterial populations in innermost (proximal to the steel surface) and outer regions of biofilms on carbon steel exposed 3 m below the surface at an offshore site in the Gulf of Guinea differed from one another and from seawater. There was a preponderance of gammaproteobacterial sequences, representing organisms known for hydrocarbon degradation. Total DNA from the innermost layer was 1500 times that recovered from the outermost. Stramenopiles (diatom) sequences were prevalent in the former. Rhodobacteriaceae, key biofilm formers, comprised 14.9% and 4.22% OTUs of inner and outer layers, respectively. Photosynthetic anaerobic sulfur oxidizer sequences were also prominent in the biofilms. Analysis of data using a different pipeline with Silva111 allowed detection of 0.3¿0.4% SRB in the biofilms. The high abundance of aerobic micro-algal sequences in inner biofilm suggests they are initial colonizers of carbon steel surfaces in a marine environment. This is the first time that the microbial population of the strongly attached inner layer of the biofilm on steel has been differentiated from the outer, readily removed layer. The accepted scraping removal method is obviously inadequate and the resulting microbial analysis does not offer complete information on the biofilm community structure.

Carbon steel pipelines are widely used for injection of sea and other waters into oil and gas wells so as to increase the rate of recovery, particularly from mature fields. Internal corrosion usually is mild. However, cases of very aggressive channelling corrosion along the bottom of the pipeline have been observed. Practical experience and anecdotal observations have attributed this to microbiologically influenced corrosion even though extensive use is made of preventative measures including biocides, oxygen scavengers, corrosion and scale inhibitors, and pipeline pigging. Interpretation of data and observations for five water injection pipelines, made available by industry, indicate that microbiologically influenced corrosion may play a part in causing channelling corrosion but that the most likely cause is under-deposit corrosion under pipe debris that settles during periods of pipeline shut-downs and low water velocity.

Ductility is an important limit state for the design of reinforced concrete beams. Its implementation varies considerably between design codes. This is investigated using reliability-based assessment with ductility defined by strain ratio. The modelling uncertainty for the ductility limit state typically is much greater than that for structural strength limit state. This is reflected in the corresponding reliability indices of limit state defined for ductility. Some of these could be considered unacceptably low.

Cast iron bridge piers, often more than 100 years old, are still in service in rail and road bridges in many parts of Australia. Increasingly, the effect of corrosion on their present and future structural safety is of interest. Field investigations and observations to assess corrosion losses and pitting of the cast iron piers of four different operational railway bridges located in tidal marine exposure conditions are described, noting that direct visual examination usually is rendered difficult by immersion, marine growth and the presence of the graphitised layer. Measured corrosion losses and pit depths showed considerable variability between piers and between bridges. Evidence was found for the influence of microbiological corrosion, fostered by nitrogenous pollution. Implications for structural safety assessment are discussed and an example given of the estimation of likely future rate of (long-term) corrosion, necessary for assessment of remaining structural safe life.

The critical role of manganese sulphide (MnS) inclusions for the initiation of the short-term growth of pitting or localized corrosion of low carbon steels has long been recognized. Classical results show that pitting probability and pitting severity increases with increased sulphide concentration for low carbon steels as a result of magnesium sulphides acting as local cathodes for initiating pitting corrosion. However, the iron carbides (cementite) in steels can also act as local cathodes for initiation of pitting corrosion. Herein it is proposed that there is competition between pits for cathodic area and that this will determine the severity of pitting and general corrosion observed in extended exposures. Preliminary experimental data for immersion exposures of up to 56 days in natural seawater of three low carbon steels show, contrary to conventional wisdom, greater pit depths for the steels with lower S content. However, the pit depth results are consistent with lower C/S ratios. This is considered to support the concept of cathodic competition between C and S. It is proposed that this offers explanations for a number of other phenomena, including the thus far unexplained apparently higher reactivity of some MnS inclusions.

The longer-term serviceability and structural safety of steel infrastructure exposed to seawater conditions may be affected by global warming and by seawater nutrient pollution. These may affect abiotic and biotic (microbial) corrosion. A model for long-term corrosion is developed from data obtained from steel piling exposed for 33 years in a seawater harbour. The effects on corrosion losses on the structural reliability of steel sheet piling as used in harbours world-wide were investigated as a function of seawater temperature rise from global warming and of seawater nutrient pollution. The results show that structural reliability is more sensitive to likely nutrient pollution than to predicted increases in seawater temperature, noting also that global warming also could increase nutrient pollution from anthropological sources.

The influence of atmospheric conditions on the corrosion of steel and its associated microbial community was studied. Surface analysis revealed greater localized corrosion in steel exposed to near-ocean atmospheres with high chloride deposition compared to inland and subalpine sites. High-throughput sequencing analysis of corrosion products showed that dissimilar microbial communities and dominant species were deposited on steel in the different atmospheres. Close to the ocean, Brevundimonas diminuta were predominant whereas Clostridium and Pseudomonas species dominated for inland sites with agricultural or forestry activities. Bacillus and Enterococcus were dominant for sites close to a fertilizer plant and a sewage treatment plant, respectively. Actinobacteria species dominated at sub-alpine conditions. Results from this study indicate that microbial communities on corroding steel exposed to atmospheric conditions are the result of deposition of locally-generated aerosols. Acid-producing activity and exopolysaccharide (EPS) production was widespread and rapidly detected in microbial cultures from all the exposure sites. Sulphate-reducing bacteria were not detected in this study. These results suggest that acid production and EPS synthesis can be important mechanisms for microbial corrosion of steel under atmospheric conditions.

Cast iron piers of a disused 90 year old multispan railway bridge located close to the Pacific Ocean were extensively sampled for remaining wall thickness to determine corrosion loss and pit depth. From this, a corrosion loss model for the full 90 years was developed. In addition, the statistics for uncertainty in corrosion loss were obtained. Corrosion varied with elevation relative to mean water level and was negligible in the atmospheric zone, about 2¿3 mm in the immersion zone and 5¿6 mm in the splash and lower tidal zones. This variation is consistent with accelerated low water corrosion. It indicates that water pollution occurred sometime during the life of the bridge. Maximum pit depths were determined and analysed using extreme value statistics. The corrosion model for such long term exposure and the related statistical results are unique and important for assessment of remaining life of the many other cast iron structures still in existence in many parts of the world.

Abstract Samples of new and 70 year old pre-corroded OPC concrete were exposed for up to 48 months in 6 sewers throughout Australia. Corrosion losses at each site followed the bi-linear trend originally proposed by Wells and Melchers [1]. During an initial phase (lasting < 2 years) negligible loss of material occurs however once the surface pH = 6 losses commence and accumulate linearly at a rate that is likely to remain constant over time. Corrosion rates were found to be sensitive to humidity but insensitive to concrete alkalinity. A first pass model which predicts the rate of concrete sewer pipe corrosion from a knowledge of local average sewer gas temperature, humidity and H<inf>2</inf>S concentrations was also developed. The equation predictions were in good agreement with rates determined from field observation and historical data.

For environmental and for economic reasons, there is increased emphasis on extending the life of existing infrastructure and to design new infrastructure for longer, safe and effective service lives. Increasing use is being made of monitoring of performance and estimation of long-term reliability and safety, allowing also for the likelihood of long-term deterioration. To obtain optimal decision outcomes, reliance should be placed not only on data but also on accumulated scientific and engineering knowledge. In engineering, this is embodied in mathematical models. Ideally, these are of good quality, calibrated to ¿real world¿ data and have prediction capabilities. Recently, developed models of this type are described for the corrosion of steel in marine environments and simplified to models suitable for engineering applications. An example is given of the prediction of the expected corrosion loss and of the likely future rate of corrosion for a mild steel structural element exposed to temperate seawater.

The quantification of mass loss, surface topography, depth of pitting, and localized corrosion for steels subject to marine corrosion requires the removal of rusts, preferably without causing additional mass loss, pitting, or other damage. Conventional procedures using inhibited hydrochloric acid or Clarke's solution are shown to remove short-term marine rusts but also to cause new corrosion including pitting and related rust products. Both increase with longer exposure to the cleaning solutions. Water washing with soft water left calcareous materials on the metal surface. Ultrasonic removal did not cause additional corrosion but was effective only for very light rusts. Although relatively slow, electrolytic cleaning (electrolysis) produced clean surfaces without new corrosion.

The evolution of corrosion loss and maximum pit depth of copper and copper alloys exposed for long periods of time in natural and industrial environments is shown to be more consistent with a bi-modal functional form than with the classical power law. Data from several long-term exposure test programs supports this proposition. The bi-modal behaviour signals a change from mainly cathodic oxygen reduction to a subsequent transitory corrosion process that may be modelled as involving pitting under earlier copper corrosion products. Possible reasons for some data sets showing decreasing maximum pit depths with increasing exposure time are discussed.

Abstract Based on the general form of Paris' law a new method is proposed for estimating the rate of cracking of metals under Hydrogen-Assisted Fatigue. It is based on relating the fatigue crack growth rate of hydrogen embrittled metal to the fatigue crack growth rate of the metal without hydrogen embrittlement. One-dimensional hydrogen diffusion is assumed. Simulations using the proposed method on steel types X52, X70-80 and X80 are in agreement with published experimental tests results. The new method obviates numerical modelling of crack propagation and much reduces the computational costs.

Chains usually form the upper part of moorings systems used for maritime structures such as floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) vessels, increasingly employed in the offshore oil and gas industry particularly in very deep waters. Current design rules do not differentiate between corrosion and inter-link wear. Laboratory experiments are described to determine the rate of wear of model (i.e. small-scale) mooring chains for up to 200,000 wear cycles. Various axial loadings and specific angular displacement were used with testing under either dry or wet conditions and for un-corroded and corroded chain. The results show that tensile force has a significant but non-linear effect on the inter-link wear. The amount of wear is similar for un-corroded and for corroded chains and is lower in wet conditions.

Aluminium alloys have excellent corrosion resistance to a wide variety of exposure conditions. Usually they corrode by pitting rather than by uniform corrosion. For infrastructure applications long-term corrosion behaviour is of interest. The relatively limited long-term pitting data that is available shows that maximum and average pit depths do not follow the power law function as conventionally assumed but tend to follow a bimodal trend with exposure time. This is consistent with the bimodal trends observed previously for corrosion mass loss of aluminium alloys. Most likely it is the result of the accumulation of corrosion products over the pit mouths, leading to the gradual development of localised anoxic conditions within pits. In turn this permits the development within the pits of anoxic autocatalytic conditions, consistent with established theory for pitting corrosion of aluminium. It also is consistent with observations of hydrogen evolution from pits. The implications of this for practical applications are discussed.

Due to their good corrosion resistance, copper and copper alloys such as 90:10 Cu-Ni are used extensively in high-quality marine and industrial piping systems and also in marine, urban, and industrial environments. Their corrosion loss and pitting behaviour tends to follow a bi-modal trend rather than the classic power law. Field data for 90:10 copper nickel immersed in natural seawater are used to explore the effect of water pollution and in particular the availability of critical nutrients for microbiologically induced corrosion. It is shown, qualitatively, that increased dissolved inorganic nitrogen increases corrosion predominantly in the second, long-term, mode of the model. Other, less pronounced, influences are salinity and dissolved oxygen concentration.

Highly polished coupons (25 by 25 by 1.5 mm) sourced from the same steel sheet were continuously immersion-exposed either to natural coastal seawater or to seawater from the same source subjected to filtration and UV irradiation to eliminate microbiologically influenced corrosion as much as possible. This was continued for 943 days (2.6 years). Dissolved oxygen levels were very similar in both environments. On average the UV-treated seawater was 2°C warmer, but all coupons exposed to it showed less localized corrosion than those exposed to natural seawater. The typical topographical difference was about 60% as measured by surface roughness parameter Sa. Mass losses in UV-treated seawater were about 10% higher than in natural seawater, but after temperature correction were similar to natural seawater for the first year and tended to be lower subsequently. At all exposure periods the rusts in UV-treated seawater were less voluminous than the rusts in natural seawater. Eventually they also contained a higher proportion of magnetite. © 2014, NACE International.

Data from a variety of field exposure programs is used to quantify the effect of concentration of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) on long-term seawater immersion corrosion loss of structural steels. A linear correlation model that asymptotes the long-term part of the previously proposed bi-modal corrosion loss model is used. It allows for average seawater temperature. Model parameters and their variability are determined and reported. The model permits prediction of long-term corrosion loss in nutrient polluted waters of known average temperature. An example shows that anthropological pollution of seawater potentially is a major hazard for corrosion of steel infrastructure. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Natural deterioration of mild steel exposed to marine environment compromises the long-term integrity, serviceability and safety of new and existing infrastructure and increases the risk of structural failure. Welded structures are known to be prone to even higher risks as a result of adverse effects of pitting corrosion in weld-heated areas. A bi-modal model has been shown recently to be a better description for the long-term development of the maximum depth of pits. Also, the statistics of pit depth have been shown to be better represented, for long term exposures, by the Frechet extreme value distribution. Both new developments present challenges for structural reliability analysis. Herein a linearization is used to represent long-term development of pit depth. It is shown that data for maximum pit depths can be separated into those with Gumbel statistics and those for which a Frechet distribution is more appropriate. An example is given for the reliability analysis of a welded pipeline subjected to localized corrosion. The effect of random variable uncertainty is assessed using a sensitivity study. Results show the considerable influence on the probability of failure of pit diameter and the parameters describing the pitting corrosion model. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

When steel sheet piling suffers accelerated low water corrosion the webs and flange-web regions of individual piles often perforate first, for reasons not fully understood. To investigate this, samples of the cross-sections of typical U and Z profile sheet piling were exposed to natural seawater for 1, 2 and 3. years. They showed localized corrosion in the central region and also near the flange-web junctions. These locations were found to have more material defects and segregation and show composition differences. It is proposed these observations are linked to localized sheet pile perforation after long exposure to seawater. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

A wide range of literature data including in situ immersion, tidal, coastal atmospheric and industrial exposures is used to show that the trend for longer term corrosion of aluminium alloys is nearly always more consistent with a bi-modal model than with the classical power-law function. It is proposed the bi-modal characteristic results from the accumulation of corrosion products causing localised anoxic conditions. These permit a change from predominantly cathodic oxygen reduction to hydrogen ion reduction under anoxic autocatalytic conditions within pits. This mechanism is consistent with established theory for pitting corrosion in aluminium. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

Unexpectedly high levels of corrosion of sheet and other steel piling were observed in UK harbours during the 1980s, and a phenomenon termed ¿accelerated low water corrosion¿ (ALWC) caused considerable concern about the structural safety of harbour quays and facilities. This paper shows that the severity of corrosion of steel piling both in the tidal zone and in the immersion zone is correlated with the concentration of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) in the local seawater. In the lower tidal zone this is consistent with the thinning of piles associated with ALWC. Previously it has been shown that in the horizontal direction the ALWC phenomenon is associated with material variability. Models are developed to allow the prediction of expected average corrosion loss both in the immersion zone and for the lower tidal zone (the ALWC effect) as a function of DIN, water temperature and exposure period. Data are presented to show the relatively low beneficial effect of changes in steel composition. It is concluded that for long-term protection against corrosion reliance must be placed on protective and preventive measures.

Accelerated low water corrosion (ALWC) is the term given to unusually high levels of corrosion immediately below the low water level in seawater exposures of steel piling. It has been associated with microbiologically influenced corrosion but conclusive evidence is lacking. Using published data for the corrosion of steel piles exposed for periods up to 27 years at various U.S. harbor and other locations, it is shown that the severity of ALWC is correlated with the concentration of dissolved inorganic nitrogen, a critical nutrient for microbiological (bacterial) activity in seawater. This was shown previously for short-term exposures and establishes that ALWC is indeed microbiologically influenced. It also provides a means of assessing the likelihood of long-term risk of occurrence of ALWC. © 2013, NACE International.

Structural reliability theory based on probability provides a systematic, logical and consistent means to make estimates of the safety of complex structural systems. However, its application currently leaves it open to criticism that its predictions do not necessarily compare with reality and with accepted risk criteria in other contexts. Herein, it is proposed that this is because applications have not dealt satisfactorily with the issues of human error and particularly human intervention in the management of loads and resistances. Probability-based models for loads can be modified to include the influence of human intervention such as through including the effect of the degree of enforcement of regulatory requirements. Similarly, the standard of enforcement of minimum standards of material quality should be added to probability-based models for resistances. This is relevant particularly for the assessment and prediction of the future reliability and safety of existing structures. © 2013 © 2013 Taylor & Francis.

Localised or pitting corrosion can be detrimental for steel pipes and containment structures, since wall perforation may cause system failure. Herein maximum pit depth quantification and its development with time are considered for samples taken from longitudinal welds on 33-year-old tubulars exposed in Newcastle Harbour. Relationships between pit depth and material metallurgy and corrosion properties were investigated by means of standard macro-etching, rest potential and zero resistance ammetry techniques. It is considered that the observed results are the result of the lack of homogeneity at the corrosion interface caused by differences in grain size, grain structure and the potential for pitting to occur preferentially along boundaries. The results are compared to measurements for longitudinal welds obtained previously on samples of API X56 Spec 5L pipe exposed in similar waters for up to 3?5 years, showing a reasonable degree of consistency between the two sets of data. The reasons for this are discussed. © 2013 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining.

Much concern exists about the apparently short durability of reinforced concrete structures in marine environments. However, there are many examples of structures that have survived for long periods of time with little evidence of reinforcement corrosion. Some of these were made with seawater as mixing water. Others had very little concrete cover. Detailed examination has revealed that reinforced concrete structures made with fine or coarse aggregate consisting of calcium carbonates such as limestone or seashells or with non-reactive dolomite have extended times to commencement of corrosion initiation and to active corrosion. The reasons for this are explored herein. In addition it is shown that some structures can have serious localized reinforcement corrosion without obvious exterior signs such as concrete cracking and delamination. This requires urgent research. © 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

This paper presents an overview of the principal features of the recently developed model for the short and the long-term marine corrosion of steels. In marine environments such as immersion, tidal and coastal atmospheric, chlorides conventionally are considered to play a major role in causing corrosion loss. The actual corrosion process is considerably more complex and besides oxidation by dissolved or atmospheric oxygen there is an important influence from the metabolic products of sulphate-reducing bacteria. The model also deals with temperature, oxygen availability, pollution and various other influences. Although the fundamental corrosion processes are all electrochemical in nature, the model does not deal specifically with these. Instead the model is built around the governing corrosion-rate controlling processes. For engineering purposes the rate of loss of material is the critical issue. The main emphasis is on the behaviour of structural and other low alloy steels. The paper closes with some observations about the applicability of the model to stainless and weathering steels and its recent extension to reinforcement corrosion in concrete structures. © 2009 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Models for the prediction of corrosion mostly give the misleading impression that corrosion of steel in seawater environments is a linear function of time (the 'corrosion rate'). Non-linear functions have been proposed also, These have been calibrated to aggregated data from a wide variety of sources. This produces predictions with wide uncertainty and it is difficult to make assessments of the effect of steel composition and environmental influences. Recent research has produced a model based on the fundamental characteristics of steel corrosion, including the effect of biological influences. Detailed investigations show that the process controlling the (instantaneous) rate of corrosion changes as corrosion progresses. This is represented as a sequence of phases for which fundamental theoretical justifications and mathematical relationships have been derived. To ensure the model has practical validity it has been calibrated to actual field observations rather than laboratory data. Research findings for the effect of water temperature, dissolved oxygen levels, nutrient pollution, depth, water velocity, water salinity and steel composition are reviewed briefly. Some observations about applications and research directions are given. © 2007 American Bureau of Shipping.

The effects of different marine environmental factors on the corrosion behavior of steel plates totally immersed in salt water are studied. A new corrosion wastage model is proposed, based on a non-linear time-dependent function. This model accounts for the effects of various environmental factors, including salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and flow velocity. A numerical example is illustrated for ships trading in different routes in the Pacific Ocean.

A stress corrosion model of a glass fibre is used within the framework of the finite element theory to predict the life of a unidirectional composite. The approach proposed here seeks to construct plausible models of comparative behaviour such that data and experience gained from short-term durability tests can be extrapolated and used to predict long-term behaviour. It is based on numerical simulation. Its significance comes from the fact that it makes use of the finite element method at the microstructural level. The finite element can capture reasonably well all aspects of damage mechanisms taking place in the microstructure. © Institute of Materials Engineering Australasia Ltd 2005.

Maritime assets such as ships and offshore platforms are major investments. Their effective management is important. Their management plans should optimise asset availability, effective lifetime and functionality and reduce downtime for repairs. Together these aspects will improve safety, risk-management and cost-effectiveness. Difficult aspects relate to the wave loading on the asset and how to accurately model this both at any point in time, and over a period of time. This paper addresses recent developments in smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) technology that significantly improve the modelling of dynamic fluid environments, including the ocean wave environment for maritime applications. The improved modelling of the wave environment enables the fluid-structure interaction (FSI) of a floating structure and the waves to be assessed. From this FSI and using finite element analysis techniques, the potential for non-linear failure behaviours in critical load-bearing structures can be predicted with greater confidence. Specific enhancements to SPH algorithms discussed herein are spatially-varied initial particle distributions, pressure correction, particle re-distributions, gravity initialisation, pressure sensors and translating active domains. Also discussed are practical aspects of the implementation that improve the ease of modelling real-world scenario such as contact interfaces, damping zones and wave making concepts. The connection between these SPH enhancements and existing features in commercial finite element analysis packages facilitate the implementation of the new assessment approach for maritime assets.

Lightweight composite materials such as syntactic perlite aluminium foams have been gaining much attention from the automotive, aerospace and nautical industries due to their superior mechanical and energy absorbing properties. Yet, there is still no empirical evidence of its mechanical performance under extreme corrosive marine environments. This study reports on 18 month corrosion field trials of such composite foam immersed in natural temperate marine waters off the southeast coast of Australia. Further, natural fresh water corrosion trials were also performed on the foams in order to quantify potential long-term phenomenological factors. Unloading Young's modulus, 1% offset yield stress as well as plateau stress after exposure fall within the scatter of previously reported unexposed samples. The results indicate no short-term loss of mechanical performance for natural exposure conditions. Reasons and implications are discussed.

Welds on mild and low alloy steels exposed to the marine environment are known to be prone to high levels of corrosion. Pitting usually is the critical form of attack. Quantification of the relative and absolute maximum pit depths that occur is important for predicting future and remaining structural life but long term data is scarce. This study reports on a comparison of pit depths measurements on longitudinally welded mild steel exposed for 3.5 years to samples of homogeneous microstructure that simulate the various microstructural regions present in a heat affected zone. Samples from a normalized fine grained mild steel pipe were heat treated to produce a coarse grain microstructure, a spheroidised microstructure, a quenched microstructure, and a quenched and tempered microstructure. All data sets are from samples immersed in natural temperate marine waters off the southeast coast of Australia. The observed results provide support for the notion that the microstructural changes induced within the heat affected zone of a weld do contribute to increased corrosion rates in this region. Reasons and implications are discussed.

Water injection of sea and other waters is widely used in the oil and gas extraction industry to increase the production from individual, nearly depleted, wells. In some cases severe internal corrosion, mainly at the 6 o'clock position has been observed. This may threaten the safety of the pipelines. In other cases corrosion was found to be very mild, even though superficially the operational conditions are very similar. Field observations have shown a high presence of various bacteria associated with corrosion present in all pipelines. Some operators inject nitrate along the pipes into the wells. Earlier detailed examination of several field cases proposed the main driver of channelling corrosion is under-deposit corrosion and that MIC may contribute to this if nitrate injection is used. This concept was investigated in an experimental study using scale model carbon steel pipe specimens with deposits and simulated deoxygenated seawater environment. Variables include the use of fresh seawater, seawater treated with filtration and ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and seawater with added nitrates. After 180 and 360 days exposure the specimens showed increased corrosion under deposits for natural seawater and even more for seawater with added nitrate. The results are consistent with observations for corrosion in polluted seawaters. Together with periods during which deposits can form, they provide a rational explanation for channelling corrosion.

This paper compares the actual field performance of 293 Class B reinforced concrete headstocks supporting 879 Class A reinforced concrete piles. These formed the substructure of a bridge constructed in 1935 and exposed for more than 80 years to tropical Pacific Ocean coastline conditions. Field inspections of the bridge at various stages during its life showed that the Class B concretes exhibited signs indicating active reinforcement corrosion after 50 years service but the Class A concretes exhibited few signs of active reinforcement corrosion. Records and historical information show that the only significant difference between the concretes is that the Class A concretes were made with higher cement contents than the Class B concretes. Visual inspection when the bridge was demolished in 2012 indicated no obvious differences in workmanship. Investigations of the concrete and the reinforcement steel at various times during the operational life of the bridge are reported. The results are consistent with recent laboratory observations that clearly indicate the importance of adequate alkalinity (pH buffering capacity) reserves to ensure durable reinforcement in concrete structures.

© 2017 Royal Institution of Naval Architects. All rights reserved. Maritime assets are major investments. Their effective management is a very important factor in not only optimising asset availability, effective lifetime, and functionality, but also reducing downtime for repairs. This paper presents a project that aims to develop an improved understanding of the structural degradation of naval and other vessels. Using an in-service ship as the study platform, structural degradation due to corrosion and fatigue within a representative environment is considered. Seaway loads, based on the operational profile of the ship, are applied to a finite element model to obtain the global and localised structural responses. Thus, stress-critical areas can be identified. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics is employed to model the fluid-structure interactions. Further, observational and experimental corrosion data is included to estimate the load-bearing capacity, the remaining safety margin, and the remaining service-life at different stages of the life-cycle of the ship.

Maritime assets are major investments. Their effective management is a very important factor in not only optimising asset availability, effective lifetime, and functionality, but also reducing downtime for repairs. This paper presents a project that aims to develop an improved understanding of the structural degradation of naval and other vessels. Using an in-service ship as the study platform, structural degradation due to corrosion and fatigue within a representative environment is considered. Seaway loads, based on the operational profile of the ship, are applied to a finite element model to obtain the global and localised structural responses. Thus, stress-critical areas can be identified. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics is employed to model the fluid-structure interactions. Further, observational and experimental corrosion data is included to estimate the load-bearing capacity, the remaining safety margin, and the remaining service-life at different stages of the life-cycle of the ship.

The design rules for FPSO mooring chain are empirical, derived mainly from experience in North Sea operations. This paper reports on aspects of a major industry-sponsored investigation to ascertain the adequacy of these rules for moorings in the Tropics and what new rules might be needed. The detailed outcomes of the project and the proposals for new design rules are still under discussion and embargo. However, an overview is given of the research program underpinning the results and specifically of the corrosion testing program and the full-scale wear-testing program. Also, in an associated but separately funded test program laboratory wear tests were conducted on scale-model chains. Some results from the model tests are described also.

There is some evidence that the addition of small amount of aluminium can reduce the atmospheric corrosion of steel. However, systematic long-term investigations are lacking. There also appears to be no information about resistance of such alloys to marine immersion conditions. This paper reports on the marine environment corrosion performance of steel alloyed with aluminium additions of 0% (control), 2%, 4%, 6% and 8%. The cast steel was forged into billets and machined into coupons. Sets of coupons were exposed to three exposure conditions: (a) in temperate seawater for 1, 2 and 3 years, (b) submerged below the mud-line for 1,2 and 3 years and (c) exposed at two extremely severe atmospheric marine locations for 12 months. The results show that the increase in Al content reduced corrosion loss in submerged conditions from 10.5% after one year to 2.8% after 3 years. In the coastal atmosphere, corrosion loss dropped from 5.5% after one year with no Al addition to 1.2% with 8% Al alloying. The corrosion resistance in marine mud buried conditions was less favourable. Corrosion loss reduced from 4.4% after one year to 2.9% after 2 years but in some instance the addition of Al had minimal or no effect on corrosion resistance. These observations add to the body of knowledge regarding the effect of aluminium on long-term corrosion loss.

Cast iron was a construction material widely used for major infrastructure from the mid-late 1800s. Many existing functioning road and railway bridges still have cast iron piers supporting them but a question of increasing importance is the rate at which the piers are deteriorating and thus their structural safety and life expectancy. Similarly, much older water supply pipeline systems in most major cities include extensive lengths of cast iron pipe. Cast iron is a surprisingly durable material but has long been suspected of being prone to MIC in wet poorly aerated conditions. Despite much research on MIC no direct link appears to have been established between MIC of cast iron and bacteria. The present paper reports recent field investigations of 4 sets of cast iron bridge piers in tidal seawater conditions that showed good correlation between accelerated low water corrosion (ALWC) and nutrient content in the seawater, similarly to what was demonstrated recently for steel sheet piling in seawater harbours. In one case the nutrient pollution is is likely to have occurred many years ago and to have left its legacy in the pile corrosion profile. For cast iron water pipes, preliminary analysis has shown correlation between soil nitrate content and greater than expected long-term corrosion loss, for pipes up to 129 years old. In the case of soils, nitrates are possibly part of the soil structure, introduced by the nitrogen cycle, or the result of pollution such as from fertilizers.

The long-Term corrosion of copper and copper alloys, such as 90:10 Cu-Ni, is of interest for their use in domestic and industrial piping systems, marine, urban and industrial environments including atmospheric and also as part of the containment of nuclear wastes in deep geological repositories. The evolution of the mass loss and maximum pit depth with increased exposure time is reviewed using data previously published in the literature. That data is re-interpreted. It shows that the classical 'power law' is not an appropriate model for corrosion evolution with time. However the data mainly are more consistent with the bi-modal model previously shown to apply to steels of various types and also to aluminium and aluminium alloys. The reasons for this are proposed as the result of the corrosion process changing from initially predominantly rate-controlled by the cathodic oxygen reaction and the diffusion of oxygen through some of the layers of corrosion product to, in the longer term, rate- controlled by products and processes involved in cathodic hydrogen reduction and the dissociation of water. This can occur for copper alloys but not for pure copper. In both cases pitting is a crucial aspect for the changing nature of the corrosion process. This new interpretation has implications for prediction of long-Term corrosion from short-Term observations. It provides an explanation for the frustration noted in the copper corrosion literature for the inability to predict long-Term behaviour from short-Term and electrochemical testing. It permits examination and reconciliation of the well-known influence of water pollution in causing MIC and accelerated (mainly pitting) corrosion of important copper alloys such as 90:10 CuNi.

Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) is the term used to describe corrosion where the presence and activity of microorganisms accelerates the corrosion rate or modifies the mechanism of corrosion. MIC is strongly associated with the high rates of localized pitting corrosion observed on moorings installed in some offshore fields, including fields in West Africa and South East Asia. Diagnosis of MIC in the field can be problematic, and is largely reliant on visual inspection and microbiological reactivity tests, techniques that are limited in their accuracy and reliability. As a result, other forms of corrosion and wear can be easily misdiagnosed as MIC, with potential negative consequences for the subsequent management of the integrity of the mooring system. This paper presents an overview of the most recent research regarding factors influencing rates of conventional corrosion and MIC (as determined within the SCORCH JIP). It describes recent advances in the application of functional genetic and chemical analysis techniques to diagnose MIC, improve understand of the biochemical processes causing MIC, and identify pathways to interrupt and mitigate MIC on mooring components.

Of considerable interest in various industries such as aerospace is the longer term safety of aluminium alloy structures and the effect of deterioration. Corrosion of aluminium alloys occurs mainly as pitting for which uncertainty and variability issues usually have led to maximum pit depth being considered a random variable that is also a function of time. An extreme value distribution is fitted to the statistical data obtained from multiple observations. Usually, the selection of the most appropriate model is based on the claim that one or other distribution is a 'better fit' to the data. This classical approach takes no account of prior knowledge of the underlying physicochemical process(es) that drive pitting behaviour. A more sophisticated approach uses such prior understanding. Recently it was shown that the linear model implied by the 'pitting rate' is too simplistic. Instead, a bi-modal model better represents both mass-loss as a function of exposure period and the evolution of maximum pit depth with time. This leads directly the possibility that one distribution may not be suitable for the whole range of pit depth data. These concepts are illustrated with examples.

The bi-modal characteristic of general or 'uniform' corrosion, or corrosion as measured by mass loss, as a function of exposure time now has been demonstrated extensively for various steels including low alloy, chromium and weathering steels, cast irons and, more recently also for aluminium alloys and for copper alloys. Also, it usually is independent of the environment. Further, it also occurs for the trend in maximum pitting as a function of time. This wide applicability demands explanation. Previously it was argued that the bi-modal character is the result of a change, at the metal-environment interface, from predominantly oxygen-rich corrosion conditions to predominantly locally anoxic corrosion conditions. It was argued also that pitting plays an important role in this process. Herein these concepts are extended from accepted theory for pitting under nominally oxic conditions that, within pits, become anoxic and causes the pitting process to become autocatalytic but eventually to lead to cessation of pit depth growth. There are two key outcomes. The first is the observation that pits grow episodically, that is, they grow in depth to a given limit, grow sideways and possibly amalgamate or coalesce, leaving plateaus of corroded surface in which new pitting can occur. The cycle time for this is faster under already anoxic conditions than earlier when it takes time for anoxic conditions to develop. The second outcome is that mass loss as a function of time is a function both of the pit depth and thus the pitting process and the increase in the number of pits with time. A considerable body of observational evidence is available to support these mechanisms. There also are well-developed theories that already explain the component mechanisms.

For estimating the likely service life of brittle material pipes with exterior corrosion pits and subject to hydrogen embrittlement crack propagation from the pits is of interest. Similarity of pattern of fatigue cracking from these pits under pressure fluctuations to that under monotonically increasing pressure is referred to. This similarity permits the effect of hydrogen on the cracking rate to be formulated. The depth of cracks initiated from surface pits is estimated as a function of pipe service time, based on the proposed formulation for Hydrogen-Assisted Fatigue Cracking.

Increasingly climate change, including the possible rise of seawater surface temperatures is causing some concern regarding the integrity of commercial and industrial structures in marine exposed environments. Structural integrity (serviceability and safety) may be compromised by the increased rates of corrosion reactions caused by increased average temperatures. Immersed structural systems also may be prone to microbiologically influenced corrosion. In this paper, three different extrapolation techniques are used to model expected corrosion loss. They are based on the same set of short-term empirical mass loss data for 1 year exposures. The results are compared with mass loss data obtained from steel piling exposed for 33 years. It is shown that the extrapolations from short term data can be very significantly in error compared with actual observations and with better modelling approaches. The effects of temperature increase and of increased microbiological influences are considered as part of the investigation.

Atmospheric corrosivity typically is determined by deploying flat coupons and measuring mass loss over a specific period (usually a year) and then deriving a material loss rate (typically expressed as microns/year). Usually mild steel but also zinc, copper and aluminium coupons have been used. The derived corrosion loss is used to gauge the susceptibility of infrastructure, such as bridges and buildings, to corrosion. Previously it was shown that slightly different corrosion rates are obtained with coupons of different sizes even under identical exposure environments. From a practical perspective the question arises what size and shape of coupon most accurately reflects corrosion to be expected on realistic steel infrastructure in corresponding environments. Results from previous and new exposure trials are compared to estimate the effect of coupon size over a two year exposure period. Also, the effect of shape and size of round and prismatic specimens is investigated. The results show that larger coupon surface areas yield lower corrosion losses. The latter are considered more relevant for accurate estimation of likely corrosion losses for infrastructure.

The deterioration of cement lined cast iron water mains such as used extensively in cities in Australia and many other cities world-wide has been observed to be mainly caused by external pitting corrosion. Since the pipes are buried and thus cannot c be inspected visually, there is considerable uncertainty about their condition. Indirect inspection techniques also have a high degree of uncertainty. For these reasons there is interest in long-term asset management to develop realistic models for depth and area of pitting corrosion to aid estimation of the probability of failure of older pipes. Generally it is considered that the deepest pits are of most interest in relation to failure. However, pit area is another important factor, which is crucial for estimating the rate of leakage and for assessing the mechanical behaviour and failure probability of pipes. Previous studies usually have assumed that pit area is directly related to pit depth. The present study examines pit area data collected from several pipes that have experienced many years of service (up to 129 years) and describes the relationship between pit areas and pit depths.

Long-term corrosion loss data for a variety of metals, including ferrous metals, buried in soils were reported in Romanoff (1957) and have often been quoted in the literature. There have been few investigations of the long-term trending of the data. Herein it is shown that the corrosion behaviour of ferrous metals buried in the ground follows a bi-modal trend with time. This trend is observed for a variety of ferrous metals in many different natural environments. Similar trends have been reported also for other exposure environments. Importantly, it indicates that the corrosion process changes over time. This is illustrated for corrosion mass loss and corrosion penetration for a variety of data sets drawn from Romanoff (1957).

Internal corrosion of steel pipelines before use, or temporarily taken out of use, and 'parked' on the seafloor for some time (months) continues to be an issue for offshore operators. This is irrespective of whether the pipes are oil production or water injection pipelines. Most commonly, severe pitting corrosion is observed at the 6 o'clock position. The conventional wisdom is that this is the result of microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC). Indeed high concentrations of various bacteria have been found in the rusts in these pipes. The usual response is dosing with biocides but such treatment has been found to be not always very effective. It also may have environmental consequences if released to the sea when the pipe is put back into service or is abandoned. This paper reviews the available open literature on this topic and compares with previous findings for the severe internal corrosion at the 6 o'clock position sometimes found for water injection pipelines. This earlier work shows that periods of stagnant conditions with deposition of rusts and other debris at the bottom of (near-) horizontal pipes is the most likely reason for the severe corrosion sometimes observed. MIC can contribute to that corrosion but is not necessarily the major influence. Much depends on water quality. It is proposed that there are considerable similarities in the corrosion behaviour of parked oil pipelines and water injection pipelines and that there are considerable avenues for further research and development.

Injecting seawater (and other water) into oil reservoirs to promote the rates of production is widely used in the offshore oil and gas industry. This is done using carbon steel water injection pipelines (WIPs) for which internal corrosion sometimes is a major problem. Field experience often shows severe corrosion at the bottom part of the pipelines. This is known as channelling corrosion, 6 o'clock corrosion or bottom of the line corrosion. Field observations also show the presence of deposits at the 6 o'clock position and evidence of bacterial activity and both under-deposit corrosion (UDC) and microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) usually are suspected. Some WIPs treated with nitrate show more severe channelling corrosion than those without nitrate addition. This is contradictory with the primary purpose of adding nitrate to try to suppress the metabolism of aggressive sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) within the oil reservoir. To date, the mechanism of channelling corrosion is not fully understood. The present work reports an experimental pilot study of the corrosion of carbon steel specimens under mixed deposits and simulated deoxygenated seawater environment. The influence of the presence of deposits, the treatment of seawater by filtration and ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and the addition of nitrate were evaluated by exposing carbon steel specimens to different test environments. The steel specimens were recovered from experimental vessels after 180 days and 365 days of exposure. The surface topography changes of steel surfaces were examined by stereo microscopy. The development of pitting under different test environments and the relative contributions to the formation of channelling corrosion are discussed.

The safety of mooring lines used for maritime floating structures is of considerable importance since they may be damaged by storm waves and by material deterioration. This paper considers chain wear and reports on results of a study on the effect of water on wear rate of chains. For this purpose, a specially-designed laboratory test rig was used to wear the surfaces of inter-link zones of chain sets under static axial load. The results show that tensile force has a significant but nonlinear effect on wear rate and that wet conditions reduce the wear rate to a considerable extent.

For years operators have reported accelerated rates of corrosion in wire rope and chain in warmer waters. Mooring design codes specify corrosion endurance of these components predominantly based on experience from the colder waters of the North Sea. The scope of the SCORCH JIP was to investigate and characterize corrosion of steel chain and wire rope moorings for a wide range of operating Floating Production Units (FPUs) and Floating Production Storage and Offtake vessels (FPSOs) in warm waters. A database was compiled of detailed corrosion measurements of in-service and retired mooring chains and wire ropes from about 30 FPUs operating in warm waters off Asia, Africa and the Americas. A set of standardized procedures were developed for forensic examinations of retrieved chain and wire rope, including photogrammetry and laboratory measurements that allowed 3D reconstruction and statistical analysis of corroded surfaces. The database was complemented by destructive tensile tests of a number of samples in order to correlate the observed degradation with residual breaking load. The SCORCH JIP also investigated the impact of sea temperature, water velocity, depth and oxygenation, steel grade and chain and wire rope construction through over 750 sample and full-scale tests spanning 3.5 years at sites around Australia. Additional laboratory tests were conducted into Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) and the combined effect of corrosion and wear of mooring chains. The SCORCH JIP has produced a series of findings with long-lasting implications for the industry, including detailed investigations of factors in corrosion such MIC, chain pitting, chain wear, wire rope blocking compound efficacy, and the effect of environmental and operating conditions. The SCORCH JIP has produced tabulated predictions for corrosion in varying temperatures, at positions in the mooring line and for nutrient levels that could encourage MIC. The predictions are underpinned by a large number of field experiments and results from operating FPUs, and are supplemented by detailed operational guidance and recommendations for maximizing mooring corrosion endurance.

Structural risk is not the same as corrosion risk. Therefore once assessment of infrastructure confirms corrosion is active and the mechanism(s) of corrosion are understood then this does not necessarily indicate an unacceptable structural risk. Asset managers, infrastructure owners and stakeholders normally indicate a required service life requirement. An implicit requirement is meeting structural and other safety requirements as defined by Australian or other Standards. Maintenance and/or remedial work activities are only supported for the asset to achieve desired functionality, serviceability, safety, operational and commercial outcomes for its required service life. The paper explores the differences between structural and corrosion risk and how each of these risk types should be considered in the assessment, management and maintenance of infrastructure to meet required service life, structural safety and risk requirements. Some examples are used to illustrate this theme.