Professor Leigh Kinsman

Problem or background: The Continuity of Care Experience (CoCE) is a mandated practice-based learning model for all pre-registration midwifery students in Australia. Evidence confirming the value of the learning experience continues to grow, and recommendations for improving the learning model have yet to be addressed using a standardised approach. Aim: This integrative review provides an updated synthesis of the literature detailing the outcomes of the CoCE as an educational model since a previous review published in 2017. Methods: This updated review replicated the methods used in the original review, including the search strategy, screening, extraction, and synthesis of newly identified studies. The results were synthesised to determine alignment with previous themes and identify emerging themes relevant to the midwifery student CoCE. Findings: Since the original search, 29 additional publications were identified. The themes were consistent with the original review, with the addition of two new themes with five sub-themes, including clarifying the value of CoCE and recommendations to optimise learning. Discussion: The CoCE's value is increasingly recognised as a critical inclusion in midwifery curricula. Adopting a coordinated approach to integrate the CoCE into core curriculum design, prioritising practice-based learning, and adopting standardised learning objectives and outcomes will overcome challenges and optimise the learning. Conclusion: This updated review confirmed that the CoCE is a unique and valuable learning model that fosters woman-centred care. Implementing the key recommendations from internationally published research can significantly enhance midwifery education and prepare a future workforce capable of providing woman-centred care to improve women's outcomes.

Problem: Midwifery Continuity of Care (MCoC) remains inaccessible for most Australian women; this is especially true in rural and regional areas. Background: Strong evidence demonstrates MCoC models improve experiences for women and their babies and are also shown to improve midwifery workforce wellbeing. However, implementation and upscale remains limited. Aim: To explore the views and experiences of implementing MCoC for both staff and women, understanding their experiences, concerns and solutions in a regional context. Methods: Qualitative data was collected via focus groups with women and healthcare staff, at six and twelve month post implementation. Data was thematically analysed using Braun and Clarke six step process. Findings: The findings support that 'women love it' and midwives working in the new MCoC model 'loved their job'. The major concern was that not all women could access the model and disconnected communication was problematic during implementation. 'Sharing stories' was a solution to overcoming these issues and promoting the positive impact of MCoC - in particular ways of working and adaption to an all-risk midwifery group practice. Discussion: This study supports widespread evidence that MCoC is valued by both women and staff. In a regional context it is important to recognise challenges faced during implementation and identifying solutions that other maternity services could consider when implementing MCoC. Conclusion: The study offers strong recommendation for regional areas to consider MGP to maintain safe, quality local maternity services.

Background: In Australia, midwifery students are required to undertake at least ten Continuity of Care Experiences (CoCE) during their education. The learning outcomes of this experience have never been explicit or standardised resulting in inconsistent assessment. Aim: To develop and identify standardised learning outcomes for the CoCE. Methods: A modified Delphi survey was conducted with an expert panel. Intended learning outcome statements were developed, reflecting the learning objectives identified in a previous study. Bloom's taxonomy levels of thinking complexities guided the wording of the outcomes. Participants were asked to rank and rate their level of agreement with each statement over two survey rounds. Findings: Round one was completed by 32 participants, with 92.5% of the 40 statements reaching consensus. The second round was completed by 23 participants, with 70.7% of the 33 statements reaching consensus. Content analysis of participant comments from each round identified duplicates that were removed and informed refining the wording of some statements. A final set of 15 learning outcomes were agreed upon. The outcomes were broadly grouped within the themes of accountability, advocacy, and autonomy. Discussion: This study has identified agreed learning outcomes for midwifery students undertaking CoCE. The consensus agreement of experts reinforced the learning model enables the development of woman-centred practice that is underpinned by accountability, advocacy, and autonomy. Conclusion: Purposeful learning outcomes for the CoCE have been developed, informing how the model can be embedded in curricula, guide student learning and assessment to standardise the pedagogy of the model to prepare future midwives.

Objective: To investigate the patterns of ED use in metropolitan and rural New South Wales (NSW) by socioeconomic status (SES). Methods: We undertook a retrospective, population-based study of de-identified data from the NSW Emergency Department Data Collection (EDDC). The study population comprised of NSW residents who presented to an NSW public hospital ED in 2013¿2019 and were registered in the NSW EDDC. Total ED presentations, negative binomial regression modelled annual changes in ED presentations over 2013¿2019, and age- and sex-standardised rates of ED presentations in 2019 were assessed. Results: Overall, between 2013 and 2019, ED presentations increased in metropolitan and rural NSW, with mean annual percentage increases of 3.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.8¿3.5) and 2.5% (95% CI 2.0¿2.9), respectively. This growth varied by SES, with larger increases observed in higher SES groups. The bulk of presentations in rural NSW were from individuals living in disadvantaged areas. Standardised rates of ED presentations were highest in the most disadvantaged quintiles (SES 1) and progressively decreased with increasing SES in both rural and metropolitan NSW (negative gradients). Rates were higher in rural NSW compared to metropolitan NSW across all SES quintiles for total, low acuity and non-low acuity presentations. Conclusions: Negative gradients in rates of ED presentations with increasing SES were observed in both metropolitan and rural NSW. At each SES quintile, rates of ED presentations were higher in rural compared to metropolitan areas. Further research exploring the underlying causal mechanisms leading to increased ED demand in rural NSW and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations is warranted.

Background This review aims to synthesise available evidence on the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), associated risk factors, hospitalisations and COPD readmissions in Africa. Method Using the Met-Analyses and Systematic Reviews of Observational Studies guideline, electronic databases were searched from inception to 1 October 2021. The quality of studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Evidence from retrieved articles was synthesised, and a random-effect model meta-analysis was conducted. The protocol was registered on PROSPERO. Results Thirty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria, with 13 included in the meta-analysis. The prevalence of COPD varied between the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (2%-24%), American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society (1%-17%) and Medical Research Council chronic bronchitis (2%-11%) criteria, respectively. Increasing age, wheezing and asthma were consistent risk factors for COPD from studies included in the narrative synthesis. Our meta-analysis indicated that prior tuberculosis ((OR 5.98, 95% CI 4.18 to 8.56), smoking (OR 2.80, 95% CI: 2.19 to 3.59) and use of biomass fuel (OR 1.52, 95% CI: 1.39 to 1.67)) were significant risk factors for COPD. Long-term oxygen therapy (HR 4.97, 95% CI (1.04 to 23.74)) and frequent hospitalisation (=3 per year) (HR 11.48, 95% CI (1.31 to 100.79)) were risk factors associated with 30-day COPD readmission. Conclusion This study not only highlights specific risk factors for COPD risk in Africa but also demonstrates the paucity and absence of research in several countries in a continent with substantial COPD-related mortality. Our findings contribute towards the development of evidence-based clinical guidelines for COPD in Africa. PROSPERO registration number CRD42020210581.

Problem: The Continuity of Care Experience is a mandated inclusion in midwifery education programs leading to registration as a midwife in Australia. The practice-based learning experience has evolved over time, yet there remains no standardised learning intentions, objectives, or outcomes for the model. Aim: To identify the key learning intentions of the Continuity of Care Experience by an expert panel to support the development of learning outcomes. Methods: A descriptive qualitative study with two focus groups were conducted with an expert panel (n = 15). Participants were midwifery education subject matter experts on the Continuity of Care Experience with backgrounds in academia, policy development, curriculum design, accreditation, or clinical education. The discussions were transcribed and thematically analysed. Findings: Three main themes and six sub-themes describe the learning intentions of the Continuity of Care Experience. The main themes were: (1) advocacy for women; (2) accountability of care; and (3) autonomy in practice. Discussion: The education model of continuity of care enables students to develop midwifery practice that involves advocating for women, being accountable for their care and being autonomous in practice. We have established that during the experience students practice in partnership with women and are exposed to the full scope of midwifery care. Importantly students learn holistic woman-centred practice. Conclusion: The learning intentions of the Continuity of Care Experience reflects woman-centred practice. Having identified a common understanding of the learning intention, these can now be used to design learning, and assessment, through the development of measurable learning outcomes.

Background High-salt diets are linked to hypertension. Chinese people in Australia, are at increased risk of hypertension due to the combination of routine addition of high quantities of salt to food during cooking and high salt levels in processed western foods. There is a scarcity of salt-related behavioural studies on this population group. This study aimed to explore the habitual salt consumption of Chinese Australians and factors that influence their perceptions about sustaining salt-related behavioural changes for hypertension prevention. Method A cross-sectional descriptive study using an adapted Determinants of Salt-Restriction Behaviour Questionnaire was conducted on 188 Chinese Australians. A non-probability sampling method was used to attract participants from different parts of Australia. Statistical analyses such as descriptive analysis, t-tests and Pearson correlation tests were performed in the study. Results Over 97% of participants did not measure the amount of salt added to their meals. Many participants reported that salt was added to their meals based on their experience (39.4%) and food taste (31.9%). Over 80% of participants did not know the recommended level of daily salt consumption. Although salt-related knowledge had no significant correlation with individuals' salty food taste preferences, there were significant correlations with the perceptions of the severity of disease and health benefits of reducing salt consumption (p = .001 and < .001 respectively). People with stronger salty taste preferences perceived a higher level of health threat than people with lighter salty taste preferences (p = .003).

Purpose: Nurses play a key role in educating people about a salt-reduced diet to prevent or manage hypertension or cardiac failure. Assessment tools such as the Chinese Determinants of Salt-Restriction Behaviour Questionnaire (DSRBQ) can provide essential evidence to inform education strategies. This study aimed to translate the DSRBQ into English and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Chinese and English versions for people of Chinese ethnicity in Australia. Methods: A two-phase cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted. Phase 1: The questionnaire was translated into English using the back-translation method. The translation equivalence and content relevance were evaluated by an expert panel. Three items were revised and eight items were removed. Phase 2: Internal consistency and stability of the questionnaires were evaluated by a group of Chinese Australians. Results: Both the English and Chinese versions had satisfactory psychometric properties. In phase 2, 146 participants completed the questionnaire (test), and 49 participants completed the retest. The Cronbach's alpha scores were 0.638 and 0.584 respectively, and the overall intra-class correlation coefficients were 0.820 and 0.688 respectively for the English and Chinese versions. The Item-Content Validity Index (CVI) ranged from 0.50 to 1.00. The Scale-CVI was 0.94. Conclusion: The DSRBQ has been translated into English. Both English and Chinese versions have acceptable validity and reliability. The tools can be used in people from a Chinese cultural background living in Australia. Further validation testing may allow the tools to be adapted for use with other Chinese diaspora groups. The validated DSRBQ will support the development of evidence-based salt reduction nursing assessment tool and interventions for Chinese diasporas who reside in a country where Chinese cultural practices are employed by a minority.

Purpose: Clinical Pathways (CPWs) are multidisciplinary, evidence-based, complex interventions designed to standardize patient care. In Saskatchewan, development, implementation and evaluation of the seven provincial CPWs (Hip & Knee, Spine, Pelvic Floor, Prostate Assessment, Fertility Care, Lower Extremity Wound Care and Acute Stroke) present significant challenges, leading to low utilization. This study aimed to identify facilitators and barriers to CPW utilization by Saskatchewan family physicians. Methods: To identify the facilitators and barriers to CPWs, a qualitative interpretive approach consisted of eight one-on-one key informant interviews and five focus groups held with 30 family physicians in two larger urban and two smaller Saskatchewan cities. Inductive, thematic analysis of the interviews based on the Theoretical Domain Framework for behavioral changes was used to identify facilitators and barriers to CPW uptake and utilization. Results: Fifty-one themes were mapped under 14 Theoretical Domain Framework domains. Major barriers included the following: system-level (knowledge and communication, social/professional identity, family physician engagement and education); objective clarification (goals, belief about consequences of implementing CPW); and technical and resource related (administrative, access to local specialists, enforcement and incentives). The most prominent barrier was lack of systematic CPW promotion and inconsistencies in communication between the following: organization-to-practitioner; organization-to-organization; and practitioner to-practitioner. Facilitators who mitigated barriers were need for optimized and integrated information technology services (i.e., Electronic Medical Records) and optimism towards CPW usage and patient outcomes. Conclusions: This exploratory study identified specific improvements and recommendations required to promote uptake of CPWs based on perceived facilitators and barriers.

Purpose: This paper aims to illustrate the complexity of understanding and managing violent behaviour in health care. The authors will show how different perceptions of the reasons for violent behaviour, and linkages between violent behaviour and illness have contributed to the creation of a wicked problem and added significant complexity to the management of violence towards staff within health-care settings. This paper will conclude with a call for strong multi-disciplinary action to address this ongoing issue. Design/methodology/approach: A narrative review was undertaken to explore the ways that violence has been perceived in health care and the ways in which the concept of violence has moved from being seen as a criminal issue to being within the realms of disease. This paper will show the importance of understanding who is perpetrating violence in health care, why and in what settings. It will expound on the idea that considering violence as a consequence of disease necessarily adds a layer of complexity to both individual and organisational responses to violence towards health-care staff. Findings: Understanding the complexity in preventing and managing violence against health-care staff can assist policymakers and managers to develop multi-faceted approaches to violence prevention, including better recognition and understanding of perpetrators of violence. Originality/value: This paper provides a unique perspective on thinking about violence in health care and the implications of its complexity.

Introduction: Care for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is provided by both family physicians (FP) and specialists. Ideally, patients receive comprehensive and coordinated care from this provider team. The objectives for this study were: 1) to describe the family and specialist physician network of care for Ontario patients newly diagnosed with COPD and 2) to determine the associations between selected characteristics of the physician network and unplanned healthcare utilization. Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using Ontario health administrative data housed at ICES (formerly the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences). Ontario patients, = 35¿years, newly diagnosed with COPD were identified between 2005 and 2013. The FP and specialist network of care characteristics were described, and the relationship between selected characteristics (i.e., continuity of care) with unplanned healthcare utilization during the first 5¿years after COPD diagnosis were determined in multivariate models. Results: Our cohort consisted of 450,837 patients, mean age 61.5 (SD 14.6) years. The FP was the predominant provider of care for 86.4% of the patients. Using the Bice-Boxerman's Continuity of Care Index (COCI), a measure reflecting care across different providers, 227,082 (50.4%) were categorized in a low COCI group based on a median cut-off. In adjusted analyses, patients in the low COCI group were more likely to have a hospital admission (OR = 2.27, 95% CI 2.20,2.22), 30-day readmission (OR = 2.44, 95% CI 2.39, 2.49) and ER visit (OR = 2.27, 95% CI 2.25, 2.29). Conclusion: Higher indices of continuity of care are associated with reduced unplanned hospital use for patients with COPD. Primary care-based practice models to enhance continuity through coordination and integration of both primary and specialist care have the potential to enhance the health experience for patients with COPD and should be a health service planning priority.

Introduction: Increasing emergency department (ED) demand and crowding has heightened focus on the need for better understanding of patient flow. Aim: This study aimed to identify input, throughput and output factors contributing to ED patient flow bottlenecks and extended ED length of stay (EDLOS). Method: Concurrent nested mixed method study based on retrospective analysis of attendance data, patient flow observational data and a focus group in an Australian regional ED. Results: Analysis of 89 013 ED presentations identified increased EDLOS, particularly for patients requiring admission. Mapping of 382 patient journeys identified delays in time to triage assessment (0¿39 mins) and extended waiting room stays (0¿348 mins). High proportions of patients received care outside ED cubicles. Four qualitative themes emerged: coping under pressure, compromising care and safety, makeshift spaces, and makeshift roles. Conclusion: Three key findings emerged: i) hidden waits such as extended triage-queuing occur during the input phase; ii) makeshift spaces are frequently used to assess and treat patients during times of crowding; and iii) access block has an adverse effect on output flow. Data suggests arrival numbers may not be a key predictor of EDLOS. This research contributes to our understanding of ED crowding and patient flow, informing service delivery and planning.

Background: Healthcare systems are overloaded and changing. In response to growing demands on the healthcare systems, new models of healthcare delivery are emerging. Community paramedicine is a novel approach in which paramedics use their knowledge and skills beyond emergency health response to contribute to preventative and rehabilitative health. In our systematic review, we aimed to identify evidence of the community paramedicine role in care delivery for elderly patients, with an additional focus on palliative care, and the possible impact of this role on the wider healthcare system. Methods: A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature from MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and Web of Sciences was undertaken to identify relevant full-text articles in English published until October 3, 2019. Additional inclusion criteria were studies focussing on extended care paramedics or community paramedics caring for elderly patients. Case studies were excluded. All papers were screened by at least two authors and underwent a quality assessment, using the Joanna Briggs Institute appraisal checklists for cross sectional, qualitative, cohort, and randomised controlled trial studies to assess the methodological quality of the articles. A process of narrative synthesis was used to summarise the data. Results: Ten studies, across 13 articles, provided clear evidence that Community Paramedic programs had a positive impact on the health of patients and on the wider healthcare system. The role of a Community Paramedic was often a combination of four aspects: assessment, referral, education and communication. Limited evidence was available on the involvement of Community Paramedics in palliative and end-of-life care and in care delivery in residential aged care facilities. Observed challenges were a lack of additional training, and the need for proper integration and understanding of their role in the healthcare system. Conclusions: The use of community paramedics in care delivery could be beneficial to both patients' health and the wider healthcare system. They already play a promising role in improving the care of our elderly population. With consistent adherence to the training curriculum and effective integration within the wider healthcare system, community paramedics have the potential to take on specialised roles in residential aged care facilities and palliative and end-of-life care.

Background: Advances in stroke management such as acute stroke units and thrombolysis are not uniformly distributed throughout our population, with rural areas being relatively disadvantaged. It remains unclear, however, whether such disparities have led to corresponding differences in patient outcomes. Aims: To describe the regional differences in acute ischaemic stroke care and outcomes within the Australian state of Tasmania. Methods: A retrospective case note audit was used to assess the care and outcomes of 395 acute ischaemic stroke patients admitted to Tasmania's four major public hospitals. Sixteen care processes were recorded, which covered time-critical treatment, allied health interventions and secondary prevention. Outcome measures were assessed using 30-day mortality and discharge destination, both of which were analysed for differences between urban and rural hospitals using logistic regression. Results: No patients in rural hospitals were administered thrombolysis; these hospitals also did not have acute stroke units. With few exceptions, patients' access to the remaining care indicators was comparable between regions. After adjusting for confounders, there were no significant differences between regions in terms of 30-day mortality (odds ratio (OR) = 0.99, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.46¿2.18) or discharge destination (OR = 1.24, 95% CI 0.81¿1.91). Conclusions: With the exception of acute stroke unit care and thrombolysis, acute ischaemic stroke care within Tasmania's urban and rural hospitals was broadly similar. No significant differences were found between regions in terms of patient outcomes. Future studies are encouraged to employ larger data sets, which capture a broader range of urban and rural sites and record patient outcomes at extended interval.

Background: Readmission rates following hospitalisation for COPD exacerbations are unacceptably high, and the contributing factors are poorly understood. Our objective was to summarise and evaluate the factors associated with 30-and 90-day all-cause readmission following hospitalisation for an exacerbation of COPD. Methods: We systematically searched electronic databases from inception to 5 November 2019. Data were extracted by two independent authors in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Study quality was assessed using a modified version of the Newcastle¿Ottawa Scale. We synthesised a narrative from eligible studies and conducted a meta-analysis where this was possible using a random-effects model. Results: In total, 3533 abstracts were screened and 208 full-text manuscripts were reviewed. A total of 32 papers met the inclusion criteria, and 14 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The readmission rate ranged from 8.8¿26.0% at 30 days and from 17.5¿39.0% at 90 days. Our narrative synthesis showed that comorbidities, previous exacerbations and hospitalisations, and increased length of initial hospital stay were the major risk factors for readmission at 30 and 90 days. Pooled adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) revealed that heart failure (1.29 (1.22¿1.37)), renal failure (1.26 (1.19¿1.33)), depression (1.19 (1.05¿1.34)) and alcohol use (1.11 (1.07¿1.16)) were all associated with an increased risk of 30-day all-cause readmission, whereas being female was a protective factor (0.91 (0.88¿0.94)). Conclusions: Comorbidities, previous exacerbations and hospitalisation, and increased length of stay were significant risk factors for 30-and 90-day all-cause readmission after an index hospitalisation with an exacerbation of COPD.

Issue addressed: Men in the Northern Suburbs of Launceston, Tasmania, experience substantially poorer health outcomes and socio-economic disadvantage than most Australians. They are often described as "hard-to-reach," meaning difficult to engage in research, health promotion, policy and planning. This paper summarises the OPHELIA process to combine health literacy profiling with engagement of local men in health promotion, and their experience of the process and outcomes. Methods: Interviews were conducted to explore the experiences of middle-aged men with the OPHELIA process and subsequent interventions. Results: Local data and health literacy profiling revealed experiences of isolation, lack of trust in the system, medication non-adherence, mental illness and chronic pain, which formed the basis for generation of ideas to improve their well-being and understanding of health. Tailored interventions were implemented, including suicide prevention, "Numeracy for Life" and "Healthy Sheds" courses. Interviews with six participants revealed that the process contributed to a sense of worth, social support and ability to break "old habits.". Conclusions: Prioritising the lived experience of "hard-to-reach" men through the OPHELIA process resulted in co-design of interventions that were valued by participants. So what?: Health literacy profiling and genuine community engagement can empower vulnerable, under-represented communities to co-design, and engage in, health promotion.

Objective: To describe literature pertaining to urban-rural differences in both the quality of care and outcomes of acute stroke patients. Methods: We systematically searched CINAHL, PubMed, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, and Scopus for published and unpublished literature until 9th December 2017. Studies were included if they compared the acute care provided to, or outcomes of, patients hospitalised for stroke in urban versus rural settings. Abstract, full-text review, and data extraction were conducted in duplicate. Findings are presented in the form of narrative syntheses. Results: A total of 28 studies were included in the review (16 on care, 12 on outcomes). With few exceptions, studies addressing the provision of care suggested that rural patients have less access to most aspects of acute stroke care. Studies reporting urban-rural differences in patient outcomes were inconsistent in their findings, however, few of these studies were primarily focused on the issue of urban-rural disparities. Overall, study findings did not appear to differ in line with study quality ratings, stroke subtypes included, or how inter-facility patient transfers were accounted for. Conclusions: There is convincing, albeit not unanimous, evidence to suggest that stroke patients in rural areas receive less acute care than their urban counterparts. Despite this, the available data and methodology have largely not been used to study urban-rural differences in patient outcomes. PROSPERO registration information: URL: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero. Unique identifier: CRD42017073262.

Objectives Junior doctors are frequently the first doctor to be called by a nurse to review patients whose clinical status has declined in hospital wards, yet little is known about how well prepared they are to deal with this situation. This paper aims to identify the factors that influence junior doctors' early recognition and management of patient deterioration in an acute ward settings. Method Integrative review methodology was used to allow for the inclusion of broad research designs, summarising current knowledge from existing research and identify gaps in the literature. Quantitative, qualitative and mixed method studies were included. An electronic database search including PubMed, Medline and Scopus was performed. Research articles, exploring junior doctors' skills specific to critically ill, or deteriorating patients, technical and non-technical skills and failure to rescue were included. Findings Thirty-three articles were included, of which eighteen were quantitative, six qualitative and nine mixed methods The majority of the studies, eighteen out of thirty-three, were from the United Kingdom. The evidence showed that the capacity for junior doctors to effectively deal with patient deterioration was influenced by: educational models that incorporated non-technical skills; the integration of high quality clinical simulation into education; and the level and type of supervision in the clinical environment. Conclusion The factors that influence junior doctors' capacity to recognise, respond and manage patient deterioration in an acute ward settings are complex. This review indicates that there is substantial room for improvement in junior doctors' capacity to deal with patient deterioration. Evidence suggests preparation of junior doctors in the recognition and management of the deteriorating patient is influenced by effective simulation education and clinical experiential exposure over time. More accessible supervision for junior doctors in acute wards is recommended to avert error and delays in the appropriate escalation of care in the deteriorating patient.

Background: The costs of investing in health care reform initiatives to improve quality and safety have been underreported and are often underestimated. This paper reports direct and indirect cost estimates for the initial phase of the province-wide implementation of Lean activities in Saskatchewan, Canada. Methods: In order to obtain detailed information about each type of Lean event, as well as the total number of corresponding Lean events, we used the Provincial Kaizen Promotion Office (PKPO) Kaizen database. While the indirect cost of Lean implementation has been estimated using the corresponding wage rate for the event participants, the direct cost has been estimated using the fees paid to the consultant and other relevant expenses. Results: The total cost for implementation of Lean over two years (2012-2014), including consultants and new hires, ranged from $44 million CAD to $49.6 million CAD, depending upon the assumptions used. Consultant costs accounted for close to 50% of the total. The estimated cost of Lean events alone ranged from $16 million CAD to $19.5 million CAD, with Rapid Process Improvement Workshops requiring the highest input of resources. Conclusions: Recognizing the substantial financial and human investments required to undertake reforms designed to improve quality and contain cost, policy makers must carefully consider whether and how these efforts result in the desired transformations. Evaluation of the outcomes of these investments must be part of the accountability framework, even prior to implementation.

Objective: To measure the differences in the recording of risk factors and lifestyle advice between those at high risk of cardiovascular disease and those diagnosed with cardiovascular disease, and to identify the practice characteristics associated with such recording in rural primary care. Design: A cross-sectional observation study of 14 general practices. Medical records were audited to measure recording of risk factors and lifestyle advice for those at high risk of and those diagnosed with cardiovascular disease. Practice characteristics were collected, with logistic regression used to test for an association with the recording of risk factors. Setting: General practices in rural Australia. Participants: Each practice was asked to identify 20 patients; 10 at high risk and 10 diagnosed with cardiovascular disease. Main outcome measures: The recording of risk factors and lifestyle advice in patient records and practice characteristics. Results: 282 records were audited with 142 being high risk and 140 diagnosed with cardiovascular disease.Measures recorded significantly less in the high-risk group were: blood pressure (94% versus 99%; P=0.019); physical activity (24% versus 56%; P=0.000); dietary advice (32% versus 51%; P=0.001); and physical activity advice (34% versus 56%; P=0.000). Recording of risk factors was positively associated with practice involvement in quality improvement (P<0.001), continuing education (P<0.001), and greater percentage of general practitioners (P<0.05) and practice nurses (P<0.001). Conclusions: There is substantial room for enhanced cardiovascular disease prevention through rural primary care in Australia, particularly for high-risk patients. This study has demonstrated an association between practice factors (including targeted education, quality improvement activities and appropriate workforce) and improved preventive activities.

Rural primary care services have the potential to play a major role in reducing the gap in cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes between rural and metropolitan Australians, particularly in men at high risk of CVD. The aim of this study was to explore the self-reported behaviours and satisfaction with their general practice/practitioner of men at high risk of CVD, and attitudes of rural primary care clinicians regarding the role of primary care in CVD prevention. This observational research was addressed through survey questionnaires with rural men at high risk of CVD and semi-structured interviews with rural primary care clinicians. Fourteen rural primary care practices from towns with populations less than 25000 participated. One hundred and fifty-eight high-risk men completed the questionnaire. Their responses demonstrated poorly controlled risk factors despite a willingness to change. Alternatively, rural primary care clinicians (n=20) reported that patients were unlikely to change and that illness-based funding models inhibited cardiovascular preventive activities. Australians living in rural areas have worse CVD outcomes. In addition, there is a disparity in the assumptions of health providers and male patients at high risk of CVD in rural areas. This necessitates innovative rural primary care models that include a blended payment system that incentivises or funds preventive care alongside an emphasis on lifestyle advice, as well as an explicit strategy to influence clinician and patient behaviour to help address the disparity.

The Saskatchewan Ministry of Health has committed to a multi-million dollar investment toward the implementation of Lean methodology across the province's healthcare system. Originating as a production line discipline (the Toyota Production System), Lean has evolved to encompass process improvements including inventory management, waste reduction and quality improvement techniques. With an initial focus on leadership, strategic alignment, training and the creation of a supportive infrastructure (Lean promotion offices), the goal in Saskatchewan is a whole health system transformation that produces "better health, better value, better care, and better teams." Given the scope and scale of the initiative and the commitment of resources, it is vital that a comprehensive, longitudinal evaluation plan be implemented to support ongoing decision-making and program design. The nature of the initiative also offers a unique opportunity to contribute to health quality improvement science by advancing our understanding of the implementation and evaluation of complex, large-scale healthcare interventions. The purpose of this article is to summarize the background to Lean in Saskatchewan and the proposed evaluation methods.

The aim of this study was a rigorous evaluation of a clinical pathway (CP) in patients who underwent a radical laparoscopic prostatectomy (RLP). The study was performed at a German university hospital. The Department of Urology has considerable expertise and performs more than 200 RLP per year. The CP for 'RLP' was developed based on the best available evidence and introduced in July 2003. It was composed of six modules, and in each module standardized recommendations for clinical examination, therapy and outcome measurement were given. An interrupted time series design with multiple linear regression models was used to measure the effects of a CP for 'RLP' on length of hospital stay, and durations of operation and anaesthesia before and after implementation. ¿2 tests were used to compare the number of patients admitted to intensive care unit, the number requiring re-operation during admission, the number requiring transfusion(s) of blood products and 30-d readmission rates. A total of 254 patients were analysed. A significant reduction in operation time and admission to intensive care but also a significant increase of patients readmitted to the hospital after the implementation of a CP was observed. Inconclusive results always warrant careful exploration, and measures on CP uptake should always be used to evaluate the success or failure of the implementation strategy. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Background: Lean is a set of operating philosophies and methods that help create a maximum value for patients by reducing waste and waits. It emphasizes the consideration of the customer's needs, employee involvement and continuous improvement. Research on the application and implementation of lean principles in health care has been limited. Methods: This is a protocol for a systematic review, following the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) methodology. The review aims to document, catalogue and synthesize the existing literature on the effects of lean implementation in health care settings especially the potential effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. We have developed a Medline keyword search strategy, and this focused strategy will be translated into other databases. All search strategies will be provided in the review. The method proposed by the Cochrane EPOC group regarding randomized study designs, non-randomised controlled trials controlled before and after studies and interrupted time series will be followed. In addition, we will also include cohort, case-control studies, and relevant non-comparative publications such as case reports. We will categorize and analyse the review findings according to the study design employed, the study quality (low- versus high-quality studies) and the reported types of implementation in the primary studies. We will present the results of studies in a tabular form. Discussion: Overall, the systematic review aims to identify, assess and synthesize the evidence to underpin the implementation of lean activities in health care settings as defined in this protocol. As a result, the review will provide an evidence base for the effectiveness of lean and implementation methodologies reported in health care.

Evidence shows the management of deteriorating patients needs to be improved, particularly in midwifery care. In a series of three simulation-based studies in Australia we examined qualified nurses', student nurses' and midwives' ability to manage patient deterioration. Nurses' knowledge levels were acceptable but their skill performance was low and there was a gap between the theory and practice they had experienced. In these high-pressure situations, demographic factors (including educational level) had no impact on their performance, which suggests they need repetitive "high-stakes" simulation, improved feedback mechanisms and enhanced educational processes.