Associate Professor Ross Wilkinson

Introduction and Aims: Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) are becoming popular and may be a potential harm reduction and quit smoking aid for people who use other drugs. Data on e-cigarette use and perceptions among people who use drugs is limited. The current study examines tobacco smoking status, use and attitudes towards e-cigarettes among people in drug and alcohol treatment. Design and Methods: Data were collected through a standardised Patient Experience Tracking System device installed in the waiting room of six drug and alcohol clinical service programs located within one area health service in New South Wales, Australia during April to June 2017. Participants were clients of participating services aged 18 years and older. Results: Five hundred and eleven participants completed the survey, 85% were current smokers, 9% were ex-smokers and 6% were non-smokers. Over half of all participants (53%) had tried e-cigarettes in their lifetime, 26% reported current use and 77% of those were using them with nicotine. Just less than half of all participants believed that e-cigarettes were helpful for quitting or cutting down smoking tobacco cigarettes (48%). More than half of all respondents (59%) believed that tobacco cigarettes were more harmful than e-cigarettes (59%) and believed that e-cigarettes were an acceptable quit smoking aid for patients of drug and alcohol services (64%). Discussion and Conclusions: Most participants were current tobacco smokers and had tried an e-cigarette though a minority were currently using e-cigarettes. Participant attitudes were favourable towards the use of e-cigarettes as quit smoking aids.

Despite widespread use, few studies have evaluated the factor structure of the Positive and Negative Affectivity Scales (PANAS) in adults. Following renewed interest in bi-factor formulations, such a model has recently been suggested as fitting PANAS data better than earlier two- or three-factor models. Study 1 compared four models using responses from Australian adults in two timeframes (state, n = 1059; trait, n = 1333). Results showed an uncorrelated two-factor structure. Three factors improved the model fit somewhat. However, Gaudreau et al.'s model yielded two highly correlated negative factors, while the bi-factor model revealed a weak and non-replicated general factor. Study 2 (n = 334) investigated the concurrent validity of the four PANAS models in the context of Eysenck's and Grey's fundamental personality models. Gaudreau et al.'s third factor and the general factor in the bi-factor model were shown to reflect neuroticism/behavioural inhibition. Further investigation in the context of the tripartite model found no unique role for the afraid factor and a switch from NA to the general factor in the prediction of anhedonia, depression and anxiety. Conclusion: Despite the allure of marginally better fitting three-factor models, Ockham's razor suggests that the two-factor solution remains the preferred model for the PANAS.

The diminished capacity to form bonds is an attribute that has been widely ascribed to psychopathy, particularly the affective domain of the construct. The purpose of the current study was to investigate this hypothesis by examining the association between psychopathy, intimate social network size, and attachment bonds, using self-report measures in a large mixed Australian sample of university students and members of the general community. Our results indicated that psychopathy is associated with some deficits in bonding. Psychopathy was associated with fewer peer relationships and less attachment behavior toward familial relationships. The results also tended to differ across psychopathy factors. Higher scorers on the affective domain of psychopathy consistently displayed diminished attachment behavior with both peers and family. However, the effect sizes were generally small and raise some question as to the centrality of bonding deficits to psychopathy, at least in adult noninstitutionalized samples.

This study examined the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) using secondary data drawn from 20 samples (N = 11,685) - 7 English and 13 non-English - including 10 community, 6 student, 1 mixed community/student, 1 meditator, and 2 clinical samples. Self-compassion is theorized to represent a system with 6 constituent components: self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness and reduced self-judgment, isolation and overidentification. There has been controversy as to whether a total score on the SCS or if separate scores representing compassionate versus uncompassionate self-responding should be used. The current study examined the factor structure of the SCS using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) to examine 5 distinct models: 1-factor, 2-factor correlated, 6-factor correlated, single-bifactor (1 general self-compassion factor and 6 group factors), and 2-bifactor models (2 correlated general factors each with 3 group factors representing compassionate or uncompassionate self-responding). Results indicated that a 1- and 2-factor solution to the SCS had inadequate fit in every sample examined using both CFA and ESEM, whereas fit was excellent using ESEM for the 6-factor correlated, single-bifactor and correlated 2-bifactor models. However, factor loadings for the correlated 2-bifactor models indicated that 2 separate factors were not well specified. A general factor explained 95% of the reliable item variance in the single-bifactor model. Results support use of the SCS to examine 6 subscale scores (representing the constituent components of self-compassion) or a total score (representing overall self-compassion), but not separate scores representing compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding. (PsycINFO Database Record.

The association between individual differences in general attachment styles and psychopathy is currently unclear, despite the potential utility attachment theory could provide regarding the interpersonal characteristics of psychopathy and the etiology of this construct. The purpose of the current investigation was to clarify these associations. For this purpose, we analyzed responses from an Australian community sample (N 249) and a U.S. community sample (N 292) containing validated measures of psychopathy (Triarchic Psychopathy Measure and Expanded-Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scales [Australian sample only]) and general attachment styles (Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised-General Short Form and Attachment Styles Questionnaire) to replicate our findings across measures and samples. The psychopathy domain of boldness was consistently negatively associated with insecure attachment styles. Psychopathy's affective domain (meanness, callousness) was consistently associated with avoidant attachment, whereas its behavioral domain (disinhibition, antisocial) was consistently associated with insecure attachment styles, particularly anxious attachment. Our findings suggest that there are consistent associations between individual differences in general attachment styles and psychopathy in adult samples and provides preliminary support for further consideration of attachment theory in psychopathy research.

The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) is the most widely used self-report measure of individual differences in adolescent attachment. However, the factor structure of this measure has not been replicated outside of the Western adolescent population. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the aim of this study is to explore the factor structure of the IPPA in Malaysian adolescents. A total of 2,040 school-going adolescents across urban and rural areas of Malaysia completed the 75 items of the IPPA Mother, Father and Peer forms. Contrary to Western findings, results revealed that the three factor structure of the original IPPA sets were not replicated in the Malaysian data. A different three-factor structure for the Parental scales and a two-factor structure for the Peer scale were found to best fit the data. Multigroup CFA (MGCFA) of the IPPA-Malay scales supported invariance of the structural model across age, gender and locality of adolescents. The results indicate that assumptions underlying the cross-cultural assessment of attachment relationships need to be examined. Future research is suggested to look into culturally valid instruments to investigate the adolescent attachment relationship beyond the Western context.

The assessment of attachment beyond infancy remains a controversial issue. Over the past 20 years adolescent attachment has been assessed in a variety of ways but no 'gold standard' for its measurement has emerged. Considering the complexity of attachment theory and the implications for measuring such relationships during adolescence, this article undertakes a review of self-report attachment measures utilised for this age group. Results of a comprehensive PsycInfo literature search are examined with regard to studies reporting the measurement of adolescent attachment. A total of 822 citations were retrieved for the years 1990 to 2012; 394 of these abstracts were further scrutinised for use in the current review. Descriptive data from citations are reported for the measure of attachment used, sample size, age range, and psychometric properties. Following this, the most commonly used self-report measures of attachment for adolescents are reviewed in detail. Theoretical and methodological concerns regarding the measurement of adolescent attachment are discussed and recommendations made regarding key issues to consider for the development of new instruments grounded in contemporary theory and evidence.

The assessment of attachment in adolescence remains problematic, with the most widely used measure, the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA; Armsden & Greenberg, 1987), argued to have major short-comings. This article reports two studies examining the psychometric properties of a shortened and modified version of the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised (ECR-R) (Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000), the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised-General Short Form (ECR-R-GSF), for the assessment of general relationship attachment anxiety and avoidance in adolescents and young adults. Confirmatory factor analyses in two independent samples of high school and university students (Total N = 1187, 11 to 22 years) demonstrate support for the two-factor model of attachment anxiety and avoidance. The measurement model was supported across data sets and was not significantly different with respect to either age or sex. While the ECR-R-GSF demonstrated appropriate convergent and discriminant validity with the Relationships Questionnaire (RQ (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) it did not converge with specific, parental relationship attachment as assessed by the IPPA. The ECR-R-GSF is argued to be a reliable and psychometrically sound instrument for assessing general attachment dimensions across a wide age range.

This study examined psychological health, maternal attachment, and attachment style in an Australian sample of breast- and formula-feeding mothers. Thirty-six breast-feeding and 24 formula-feeding women with a child between 4 and 6 months of age were recruited through community health centres and snowball sampling. Participation involved a 30-minute interview and completion of relevant questionnaires. Contrary to expectations, no differences were found between breast- and formula-feeding mothers in terms of their psychological health and maternal attachment. Results suggest that secure attachment styles are related to greater psychological health and that they predict the likelihood of a mother changing feeding method. The results of this study challenge widely held assumptions concerning the importance of breast-feeding for maternal well-being and attachment with infants, and support the literature suggesting attachment styles play an important role in affect regulation and the adjustment to new motherhood. © 2006 Society for Reproductive and Infant Psychology.

The quality of adolescent attachment with mothers, fathers, and peers, and the impact of these relationships on psychological health and self-esteem is examined in a sample of 615 high school students. Using an attachment theory perspective, it is argued that different attachment relationships have different affects on adjustment depending on age and gender. Results support the view that attachment develops in peer relationships before withdrawing from parental relationships in adolescence and that this process occurs at different ages and has different consequences for self-esteem and depression. Mother attachment had a greater impact on psychological adjustment for girls while father attachment had a greater impact for boys. It is concluded that while an attachment framework is useful for understanding developmental changes in relationship networks during adolescence, further individual difference and developmental factors may need to be considered. © 2006, Australian Psychological Society. All rights reserved.

This paper presents the results of 3 studies examining the relationships of parental attachment, peer attachment, and self-esteem to adolescent psychological health. A model is presented in which parental attachment directly influences both psychological health and self-esteem and the influence of peer attachment on psychological health is totally mediated by self-esteem. Using structural equation modeling, Study 1 evaluates the model on a sample of 1998 Norwegian high school students (aged 12-19 years). With some modifications it is found to be a satisfactory fit. Study 2 replicates Study 1 using a sample of 358 Australian high school students (aged 15-18 years). A multisample analysis revealed no significant differences between the model for Studies 1 and 2. Study 3 was a further successful replication employing alternative measures of the constructs considered with a sample of 345 Australian high school students (aged 15-19 years). The major finding from all 3 studies is that the role of peer and parental attachment on psychological health is primarily meditated by self-esteem. Implications for research elucidating the links between attachment and specific aspects of self-esteem are discussed.

This study examined the validity of two methods for assessing self-discrepancies: an idiographic method (The Selves Questionnaire, SQ) and a nomothetic method (Adjective Rating List, ARL). It also tested several major hypotheses of self-discrepancy theory regarding the relations between self-discrepancies and emotional discomfort. SQ and ARL scores from 220 participants demonstrated moderate correlations between instruments and high intercorrelations between discrepancy scores within instruments. Self-discrepancy scores were related to negative emotional states, but the specificity of these relations was not demonstrated, nor did they make a substantial contribution to the prediction of negative emotional states after controlling for negative self-concept. Overall, these findings raise significant concerns about the relevance of self-discrepancies as measured by the SQ and ARL and fail to support the main contentions of self-discrepancy theory.

Attachment is argued to be a major influence on psychological health. However, research examining attachment and psychological health in adolescents frequently fails to distinguish between the different dimensions of psychological health and their differential relationship to attachment and key personality and life event variables. This cross-sectional study of 404 adolescents examined the role of attachment, neuroticism, extraversion, and positive and negative life events in psychological well-being and distress. Quality of attachment to parents, but not peers, predicted increased well-being and decreased distress independent of neuroticism, extraversion, and life event variables. It is concluded that while parental attachment is implicated in psychological health, the role and status of measures of quality of peer relationships as attachment is unclear. © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.

A cross-sectional study of 392 late adolescents and young adults (mean age 18.2 years) was undertaken to examine the relationship between coping styles and psychological health. Coping styles were assessed through the Coping Styles Questionnaire (Roger, Jarvis, & Najarian, 1993). Using separate regression models of psychological distress and psychological wellbeing, the direct effects and moderator models of coping were tested with regard to approach and avoidant coping. It was hypothesised that approach coping would have buffer effects on distress and wellbeing and that avoidant coping would have direct effects on distress and wellbeing. Results indicated that there were no buffer effects for either approach or avoidant coping, but there were direct effects for both. The use of approach coping was associated with increased wellbeing, while avoidant coping was related to increased distress levels. Implications for effective primary intervention techniques for adolescent wellbeing and distress are discussed.

Mood state and mood lability were assessed over a nine month period in a sample of primiparous (n = 42) and multiparous (n = 44) childbearing couples. Positive mood, negative mood and mood lability were measured in the second and third trimester, ten days after parturition, and three months postpartum. Results indicated that the immediate postpartum was the peak period of positive affect for both primiparous and multiparous mothers and their male partners and was also the peak period of negative affect and mood lability for primiparous women. It is argued that the results do not support the 'maternity blues' hypothesis that the immediate postpartum is characterised by labile dysphoric mood. Rather, mood in this period may better be described as a mixed affective state with elevated levels of both positive and negative mood.

Psychological health in adult populations has been conceptualized as being comprised of two distinct, though related, dimensions: well-being and distress. Research into adolescent psychological health, however, has been dominated by a single factor approach with well-being and distress defining opposite ends of this continuum. Measures of psychological health were administered to 345 late adolescents. A series of confirmatory factor analyses supported an oblique two-factor model of psychological health with measures of anxiety and negative affect defining a distress construct and measures of positive affect, satisfaction with life, and happiness defining a well-being construct. A measure of depression loaded on both well-being and distress. It is concluded that although these two dimensions are highly correlated, they are distinguishable in adolescent samples. It is suggested that to avoid confusion in the literature authors should take more care in labeling the aspects of psychological health that they wish to assess.

Previous attempts to operationalise Gray's BIS-BAS theory at the personality level have not been very successful. Recently Carver and White (1994) presented new scales focussing specifically on dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities. The current study (N= 336) examined the internal validity of the newly created scales as well as their relationships with well established concepts and scales like Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Positive and Negative Emotionality. An exact replication of the principal components analysis of Carver and White (1994) is presented for comparison. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that a correlated four factor model provided the relatively best, but modest fit to the data. Correlations with Neuroticism, Extraversion, Positive and Negative Affectivity were generally in the predicted direction. However, Neuroticism and Extraversion were not predicted by Gray's combinations of BIS and BAS activity, questioning the theory or its operationalisation in the new scales. A second order factor analysis supported the hypothesis that the Extraversion, Fun, Drive, and Positive Affect scales all measure a common positive personality factor, while the Neuroticism, BIS, and Negative Affect scales measure a common higher order negative factor. Reward Responsiveness, however, loaded on both factors. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.