Dr Matthew Bergin

Resolution is a key parameter for microscopy, but methods for standardizing its definition are often poorly defined. For a developing technique such as scanning helium microscopy, it is critical that a consensus-based protocol for determining instrument resolution is prepared as a written standard to allow both comparable quantitative measurements of surface topography and direct comparisons between different instruments. In this paper we assess a range of quantitative methods for determining instrument resolution and determine their relative merits when applied to the specific case of the scanning helium microscope (SHeM). Consequently, we present a preliminary protocol for measuring the resolution in scanning helium microscopy based upon utilizing appropriate test samples with sets of slits of well-defined dimensions to establish the quantitative resolution of any similar instrument.

Understanding doping in polymer semiconductors has important implications for the development of organic electronic devices. This study reports a detailed investigation of the doping of the poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)/Nafion bilayer interfaces commonly used in organic biosensors. A combination of UV-visible spectroscopy, dynamic secondary ion mass spectrometry (d-SIMS), dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, and electrical device characterization reveals that the doping of P3HT increases with annealing temperature, and this increase is associated with thermally activated interdiffusion of the P3HT and Nafion. First-principles modeling of d-SIMS depth profiling data demonstrates that the diffusivity coefficient is a strong function of the molar concentration, resulting in a discrete intermixed region at the P3HT/Nafion interface that grows with increasing annealing temperature. Correlating the electrical conductance measurements with the diffusion model provides a detailed model for the temperature-modulated doping that occurs in P3HT/Nafion bilayers. Point-of-care testing has created a market for low-cost sensor technology, with printed organic electronic sensors well positioned to meet this demand, and this article constitutes a detailed study of the doping mechanism underlying such future platforms for the development of sensing technologies based on organic semiconductors.

The design of a high-efficiency mass spectrometer is described, aimed at residual gas detection of low mass species using low-energy electron impact, with particular applications in helium atom microscopy and atomic or molecular scattering. The instrument consists of an extended ionization volume, where electrons emitted from a hot filament are confined using a solenoidal magnetic field to give a high ionization probability. Electron space charge is used to confine and extract the gas ions formed, which are then passed through a magnetic sector mass filter before reaching an ion counter. The design and implementation of each of the major components are described in turn, followed by the overall performance of the detector in terms of mass separation, detection efficiency, time response, and background count rates. The linearity of response with emission current and magnetic field is discussed. The detection efficiency for helium is very high, reaching as much as 0.5%, with a time constant of (198 ± 6) ms and a background signal equivalent to an incoming helium flux of (8.7 ± 0.2) × 106 s-1

We describe a method for obtaining the optimal design of a normal incidence Scanning Helium Microscope (SHeM). Scanning helium microscopy is a recently developed technique that uses low energy neutral helium atoms as a probe to image the surface of a sample without causing damage. After estimating the variation of source brightness with nozzle size and pressure, we perform a constrained optimisation to determine the optimal geometry of the instrument (i.e. the geometry that maximises intensity) for a given target resolution. For an instrument using a pinhole to form the helium microprobe, the source and atom optics are separable and Lagrange multipliers are used to obtain an analytic expression for the optimal parameters. For an instrument using a zone plate as the focal element, the whole optical system must be considered and a numerical approach has been applied. Unlike previous numerical methods for optimisation, our approach provides insight into the effect and significance of each instrumental parameter, enabling an intuitive understanding of effect of the SHeM geometry. We show that for an instrument with a working distance of 1 mm, a zone plate with a minimum feature size of 25 nm becomes the advantageous focussing element if the desired beam standard deviation is below about 300 nm.

A ray tracing method for predicting contrast in atom beam imaging is presented. Bespoke computational tools have been developed to simulate the classical trajectories of atoms through the key elements of an atom beam microscope, as described using a triangulated surface mesh, using a combination of MATLAB and C code. These tools enable simulated images to be constructed that are directly analogous to the experimental images formed in a real microscope. It is then possible to understand which mechanisms contribute to contrast in images, with only a small number of base assumptions about the physics of the instrument. In particular, a key benefit of ray tracing is that multiple scattering effects can be included, which cannot be incorporated easily in analytic integral models. The approach has been applied to model the sample environment of the Cambridge scanning helium microscope (SHeM), a recently developed neutral atom pinhole microscope. We describe two applications; (i) understanding contrast and shadowing in images; and (ii) investigation of changes in image formation with pinhole-to-sample working distance. More generally the method has a broad range of potential applications with similar instruments, including understanding imaging from different sample topographies, refinement of a particular microscope geometry to enhance specific forms of contrast, and relating scattered intensity distributions to experimental measurements.