Professor Nanthi Bolan

Biochar has exhibited a greater potential for treatment of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) contaminated soils than other sorbents. However, biochar can cause contradictory effects on the PTEs mobilization and phytoavailability. Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to present the contrasting effects of different types of biochar on the mobilization and phytoavailability of different PTEs in different soils. Here, we critically reviewed and discussed the (im)mobilization efficiency of biochar for PTEs in soils with respect to its physicochemical characteristics and type of soil and element. Application of biochar to PTEs contaminated soils may affect the bioavailability of soil PTEs either by immobilizing or mobilizing these elements, which may depend on the element type, biomass feedstock, application rate, and soil type. Biochar may immobilize many PTEs as a result of increasing soil pH and increasing soil sorption capacity. On the other side, biochar may increase the mobilization of some other PTEs like Cu and As as a result of the increase of dissolved organic carbon. Also, increasing mobility and bioavailability of As in the biochar-treated soils might be explained by the increase of soil pH and promoting the reduction of As(V) to As(III). The properties of biochar (e.g., surface functional groups, mineral content, ionic content, and p-electrons) directly influenced PTEs (im)mobilization mechanisms, which in turn determined the capacity of biochar for remediation of PTEs contaminated soils. Hence, the combined effects of those properties on the (im)mobilization of PTEs by biochar are complex and highly PTE-specific. This chapter demonstrates the overarching scientific opportunities for a comprehensive understanding of using biochars as promising low-cost and effective materials for the remediation of PTEs contaminated soils.

Biochars contain a large reserve of various carbon fractions which can act as a strong reducing agent, thereby impacting contaminant interactions in soil. Toxic metal(loid)s, including arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), and selenium (Se), are commonly subject to redox reactions in natural environments, thereby influencing their speciation and mobility. Similarly, nutrient elements such as nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and iron (Fe) undergo redox reactions in soil that control their plant availability and losses through gaseous emission and leaching. The mobility and bioavailability of many of the organic contaminants, such as trichloroethane (TCE), are dictated by their redox reactions. In the chapter, the effect of biochar on the redox-mediated reactions of heavy metal(loid)s (e.g., As and Cr), nutrient element (e.g., N) and organic contaminant (e.g., TCE) in relation to their mobilization and bioavailability will be discussed. Biochar application is found to be beneficial in reducing Cr toxicity by converting Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and subsequent immobilization of Cr species. In contrast, the biochar-induced reduction of As(V) to As(III) species increases the toxicity of As, as As(III) is more toxic in soils. Biochar addition induces the reduction of nitrate nitrogen, thereby increasing nitrous oxide emission. Biochar addition enhances the reduction of TCE, thereby decreasing its bioavailability and toxicity. The presence of functional groups on biochar provide electrons, thereby promoting the redox reactions of contaminants.

Mine sites can be a potential threat to public health due to the risk of polluting nearby groundwater and soils. During the early mining period, mining companies had less strict remediation codes than those in place now, and waste material was customarily disposed in heaps (tailings) in the direct vicinity of the mine (Johnson et al. 2016; Pascaud et al. 2015). Once the ore was exhausted, companies either closed down or moved out, many of them leaving their mining waste behind. These abandoned wastes are considered among the worst environmental problems and a serious hazard to ecosystems and human health (Anawar 2015; Fields 2003; Hudson-Edwards et al. 2011). Tailing deposits generated from mining activities pose a potential risk for the soil and aquatic environments through the release of potentially toxic metal(loid)s occurring in a variety of minerals present in the tailings (Anawar 2015; Hudson-Edwards et al. 2011). Heavy metal(loid)s include both biologically essential (e.g., cobalt [Co], copper [Cu], chromium [Cr], manganese [Mn], and zinc [Zn]) and nonessential (e.g., arsenic [As], cadmium [Cd], lead [Pb], and mercury [Hg]) elements. The nonessential elements are highly toxic; however, at excessive concentrations, both groups are toxic to plants, animals, and/or humans (Adriano 2001; Alloway 1990)

The dynamics of trace elements in soils is dependent on both their physicochemical interactions with inorganic and organic soil constituents and their biological interactions linked to the microbial activities of soil-plant systems. Microorganisms control the transformation (microbial or biotransformation) of trace elements by several mechanisms that include oxidation, reduction, methylation, demethylation, complex formation, and biosorption. Microbial transformation plays a major role in the behavior and fate of toxic elements, especially arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), and selenium (Se) in soils and sediments. Biotransformation processes can alter the speciation and redox state of these elements and hence control their solubility and subsequent mobility. These processes play an important role in the bioavailability, mobility, ecotoxicity, and environmental health of these trace elements. A greater understanding of biotransformation processes is necessary to efficiently manage and utilize them for contaminant removal and to develop in situ bioremediation technologies. In this chapter, the key microbial transformation processes, including biosorption, redox reactions, and methylation/demethylation reactions controlling the fate and behavior of As, Cr, Hg, and Se, are addressed. The factors affecting these processes in relation to the bioavailability and remediation of trace elements in the environment are also examined, and possible future research directions are recommended.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) from both active and abandoned mine sites is a major environmental issue for the mining industry in environmentally concerned regions of the world (Gray 1997, Lindsay et al. 2015). The term is used to describe any seepage, leachate, or drainage affected by the oxidation products of sulfide minerals in mine sites when exposed to air and water (Figure 3.1). Both chemical reactions and biological transformations are recognized as being responsible for generating AMD (Lindsay et al. 2015). AMD is typically characterized by low pH and high levels of dissolved metal salts, as well as high concentrations of acidity, sulfate, iron, and other metals (Gray 1997). Once the AMD process begins, it is difficult to control, often accelerates, and is likely to persist for decades or centuries. In the absence of natural or added neutralizing materials 34(carbonate minerals such as calcite or dolomite), the AMD is likely to contain toxic levels of heavy metals such as Fe, Al, Mn, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd, which can cause serious environmental problems in soil and water systems (Sengupta 1994)

Spoil to Soil: Mine Site Rehabilitation and Revegetation presents both fundamental and practical aspects of remediation and revegetation of mine sites. Through three major themes, it examines characterization of mine site spoils; remediation of chemical, physical and biological constraints of mine site spoils, including post mine-site land-use practices; and revegetation of remediated mine site spoils. Each theme includes chapters featuring case studies involving mine sites around the world. The final section focuses specifically on case studies with successful mine site rehabilitation. The book provides a narrative of how inert spoil can be converted to live soil. Instructive illustrations show mine sites before and after rehabilitation. The purpose of this book is to provide students, scientists, and professional personnel in the mining industry sensible, science-based information needed to rehabilitate sustainably areas disturbed by mining activities. This book is suitable for undergraduate and graduate students majoring in environmental, earth, and soil sciences; environmental and soil scientists; and mine site environmental engineers and regulators

The Australian beef cattle industry is one of the most efficient and ranks third largest in beef export in the world, contributing 4% of beef supply. As on 2013, the meat value produced from beef cattle, in Australia is estimated to be $12.3 billion (Fastfacts, 2013). Beef cattle production ranges from intensive farms on fertile lands to extensive range lands. With the increase in human population and increase in affordability of meat-based food, the demand for beef cattle is also increasing

¿Mining¿ refers to the excavation of economically important resources from terrestrial landmasses, thereby generating a large quantity of valuable precursors for commercial and industrial activities. Mineral products such as coal, aluminum, copper, iron, gold, and mineral sand are examples from the mining industry. Though mining advances global economic prosperity, this industry severely disturbs the land, water resources, and the environment (Figure 4.1). Mined waste materials such as tailings, subsoils, oxidized wastes, and fireclay are the main causes for land disturbance. Presence of potentially hazardous substances such as heavy metals in elevated concentrations in the mined waste materials has caused land contamination. Poor soil characteristics such as low-level organic matter and poor soil texture and structure have resulted in deterioration of the land, adversely affecting the establishment of plants and soil microbial flora and fauna (Boyer et al. 2011, Johnson 2003, Larney and Angers 2012, Sopper 1992). Disturbed mine sites are known to contaminate water resources 60 61in many countries, mainly from acid mine drainage (Bolan et al. 2003, Lindsay et al. 2015, Taylor et al. 1997). Therefore, these sites need to be rehabilitated to minimize potential environmental consequences, thereby enhancing their utilization. Revegetation of mine sites is one of the potential strategies that can be applied to improve these disturbed land masses. Here, infertile soil properties are improved by a series of processes such as land application of biowastes

Soils are a prime and very important natural resource, and soil fertility is a major concern for sustainable agriculture and economic development of any country. In recent decades, problems of contaminated land sites, water bodies, groundwater, and air worldwide have increased manyfold due to anthropogenic activities. Mining is one of the anthropogenic activities that cause pollution problems in, around, and outside of mining areas. It results in the mobilization of metals and organic and inorganic substances into the environment, which causes pollution of air, soils, sediments, vegetation, and surface and groundwater. It also increases the morbidity and mortality of plant and animal species and results in the loss of visual, aesthetic characteristics of landscapes (Bolan et al. 2003; Pavli et al. 2015)

Degradation of land resources as a result of mining activities poses serious threat to the environment. It has been estimated that around 0.4 × 106 km2 area of land is impacted by mining activities around the world (Hooke and Martín-Duque 2012). Unfortunately, a significant percentage of this area has never been reclaimed, which poses health risks to ecosystems and humans. Often, these wastes contain hazardous substances such as heavy metals, organic contaminants, radionuclides, and crushed limestone, where the latter could become a potential source of atmospheric CO2 emission. Thus, they not only pose serious risk to the groundwater and surface water, but also to the atmosphere (Wijesekara et al. 2016). In order to tackle the issues related to mine wastes and manage the affected sites sustainably, an appropriate physical, chemical, and biological characterization of waste materials becomes very prudent. Due to the lack of both above- and below-ground biodiversity, mine waste sites are very poor in organic matter content. This in return leads to poor seed germination, plant growth, and vegetation establishment. In many cases, the associated toxic contaminants also seriously compromise the soil health, microbial life, and plant growth (Castillejo and Castelló 2010, Larney and Angers 2012). This chapter describes the physicochemical characteristics of mine wastes, including spoil, tailings, and overburden, by underpinning their source-property relationships. The value of readily available biowaste resources, including biosolids, composts, and manures, in improving such physicochemical properties of mining-impacted soils/sites is also discussed

Historically, mining of metalliferous ore bodies was a relatively dispersed activity, with numerous small mines occurring throughout many western countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia (Soucek et al. 2000, Grant et al. 2002, Mayes et al. 2009). Many metalliferous mine sites began operation in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and were abandoned in most instances before the environmental movement in Western countries. As such, there was very little recognition of the potential impacts caused by the dispersal of metal toxicants such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) into the surrounding environments from these sites. Many of these contaminants are cariogenic in humans (e.g., As), cause a range of human health-related impacts (Pb, Cd), and are toxic to ecological receptors in nearby streams and surrounding terrestrial environments (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni). As a result of the lack of regard for potential impacts, much of the mining waste was discarded carelessly throughout mining sites, and in some cases, directly into nearby watercourses

In the era of global competition, mineral exploitation has been significantly increased resulting in pressure on the environment in the form of massive deforestation, soil pollution, and erosion. Despite global economic importance, mineral industries have adversely affected the ecosystems across the world. The impact of mine waste in soil depends on its type and composition, commodity being mined, type of ore, and technologies used to process the ore. Mining types and activities are several, which include surface mining, underground mining, openpit mining, in situ mining, pillar mining, slope mining, block caving, and quarrying. And thus mine waste materials vary in their physical and chemical composition and potential for soil contamination. The different 96types of mine waste materials are overburden, waste rock, tailings, slags, mine water, sludge, and gaseous wastes. Overburden includes the soil and rock that are removed to gain access to the ore deposits at openpit mines. It is usually dumped on the surface at mine sites where it will not hinder further expansion of the mining operation. Waste rock contains minerals in concentrations considered too low to be extracted at a profit. It is often stored in heaps on the mine site. Tailings are finely ground rock and mineral waste products of mineral processing operations. They also contain leftover processing chemicals, and usually are deposited in the form of water-based slurry into tailings ponds. Slags are nonmetallic by-products from metal smelting. Mine water is produced in a number of ways at mine sites and varies in its quality and potential for environmental contamination. Sludge is produced at active water treatment plants used at some mine sites and consists of the solids that have been removed from the water as well as any chemicals. Gaseous wastes are produced during high-temperature chemical processing such as smelting, and consist of particulate matter and oxides of sulfur

Acid mine drainage (AMD) from both active and abandoned mine sites is a major environmental issue for the mining industry in environmentally concerned regions of the world (Gray 1997, Lindsay et al. 2015). The term is used to describe any seepage, leachate, or drainage affected by the oxidation products of sulfide minerals in mine sites when exposed to air and water (Figure 3.1). Both chemical reactions and biological transformations are recognized as being responsible for generating AMD (Lindsay et al. 2015). AMD is typically characterized by low pH and high levels of dissolved metal salts, as well as high concentrations of acidity, sulfate, iron, and other metals (Gray 1997). Once the AMD process begins, it is difficult to control, often accelerates, and is likely to persist for decades or centuries. In the absence of natural or added neutralizing materials 34(carbonate minerals such as calcite or dolomite), the AMD is likely to contain toxic levels of heavy metals such as Fe, Al, Mn, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd, which can cause serious environmental problems in soil and water systems (Sengupta 1994)

Spoil to Soil: Mine Site Rehabilitation and Revegetation presents both fundamental and practical aspects of remediation and revegetation of mine sites. Through three major themes, it examines characterization of mine site spoils; remediation of chemical, physical and biological constraints of mine site spoils, including post mine-site land-use practices; and revegetation of remediated mine site spoils. Each theme includes chapters featuring case studies involving mine sites around the world. The final section focuses specifically on case studies with successful mine site rehabilitation. The book provides a narrative of how inert spoil can be converted to live soil. Instructive illustrations show mine sites before and after rehabilitation. The purpose of this book is to provide students, scientists, and professional personnel in the mining industry sensible, science-based information needed to rehabilitate sustainably areas disturbed by mining activities. This book is suitable for undergraduate and graduate students majoring in environmental, earth, and soil sciences; environmental and soil scientists; and mine site environmental engineers and regulators

¿Mining¿ refers to the excavation of economically important resources from terrestrial landmasses, thereby generating a large quantity of valuable precursors for commercial and industrial activities. Mineral products such as coal, aluminum, copper, iron, gold, and mineral sand are examples from the mining industry. Though mining advances global economic prosperity, this industry severely disturbs the land, water resources, and the environment (Figure 4.1). Mined waste materials such as tailings, subsoils, oxidized wastes, and fireclay are the main causes for land disturbance. Presence of potentially hazardous substances such as heavy metals in elevated concentrations in the mined waste materials has caused land contamination. Poor soil characteristics such as low-level organic matter and poor soil texture and structure have resulted in deterioration of the land, adversely affecting the establishment of plants and soil microbial flora and fauna (Boyer et al. 2011, Johnson 2003, Larney and Angers 2012, Sopper 1992). Disturbed mine sites are known to contaminate water resources 60 61in many countries, mainly from acid mine drainage (Bolan et al. 2003, Lindsay et al. 2015, Taylor et al. 1997). Therefore, these sites need to be rehabilitated to minimize potential environmental consequences, thereby enhancing their utilization. Revegetation of mine sites is one of the potential strategies that can be applied to improve these disturbed land masses. Here, infertile soil properties are improved by a series of processes such as land application of biowastes

Soils are a prime and very important natural resource, and soil fertility is a major concern for sustainable agriculture and economic development of any country. In recent decades, problems of contaminated land sites, water bodies, groundwater, and air worldwide have increased manyfold due to anthropogenic activities. Mining is one of the anthropogenic activities that cause pollution problems in, around, and outside of mining areas. It results in the mobilization of metals and organic and inorganic substances into the environment, which causes pollution of air, soils, sediments, vegetation, and surface and groundwater. It also increases the morbidity and mortality of plant and animal species and results in the loss of visual, aesthetic characteristics of landscapes (Bolan et al. 2003; Pavli et al. 2015)

Degradation of land resources as a result of mining activities poses serious threat to the environment. It has been estimated that around 0.4 × 106 km2 area of land is impacted by mining activities around the world (Hooke and Martín-Duque 2012). Unfortunately, a significant percentage of this area has never been reclaimed, which poses health risks to ecosystems and humans. Often, these wastes contain hazardous substances such as heavy metals, organic contaminants, radionuclides, and crushed limestone, where the latter could become a potential source of atmospheric CO2 emission. Thus, they not only pose serious risk to the groundwater and surface water, but also to the atmosphere (Wijesekara et al. 2016). In order to tackle the issues related to mine wastes and manage the affected sites sustainably, an appropriate physical, chemical, and biological characterization of waste materials becomes very prudent. Due to the lack of both above- and below-ground biodiversity, mine waste sites are very poor in organic matter content. This in return leads to poor seed germination, plant growth, and vegetation establishment. In many cases, the associated toxic contaminants also seriously compromise the soil health, microbial life, and plant growth (Castillejo and Castelló 2010, Larney and Angers 2012). This chapter describes the physicochemical characteristics of mine wastes, including spoil, tailings, and overburden, by underpinning their source-property relationships. The value of readily available biowaste resources, including biosolids, composts, and manures, in improving such physicochemical properties of mining-impacted soils/sites is also discussed

While landfilling provides a simple and economic means of waste disposal, it causes environmental impacts including leachate generation and greenhouse gas emissions. Increasingly, revegetation is practiced on traditionally managed landfill sites to mitigate environmental degradation. It also provides a source of biomass for energy production. Biomass from landfill sites can be converted to bioenergy through biochemical and thermochemical processes. Selection of suitable biomass-producing plants (high-yielding crops), pretreatments (e.g., removal of lignin) and providing ideal conditions for the conversion processes (e.g., temperature and pressure) influence the quantity and quality of energy generated. This chapter provides an overview of the potential volumes of biomass produced from landfills and the various methods of biomass energy conversion.

This chapter discusses the soil quality aspect of biofuel production. The production of biofuel crops might simultaneously affect a combination of soil properties and stipulating severe human-driven soil quality threats, out of which the decline of soil organic matter (SOM), the increase of erosion risks, and onand off-site pollution and nutrient losses are the most pronounced. The chapter analyzes differences between annual and perennial crops out of the effects of management and land-use change (LUC), including an issue of soil organic carbon (SOC) budget and sustainable removal of crop residues for energy production. Consequently, it focuses on soil quality under biofuel crop production as affected by these threats to provide essential soil services. The chapter further concentrates on the challenges of the soil quality aspect of sustainable biofuel crop production, which include by-product management, soil remediation potential, and utilization of idle and degraded soils for biofuels. This edition first published 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

With increasing demand for world water supply, wastewater reuse is a great opportunity to meet the water need, especially for agricultural and industrial development. Wastewater originates from many sources and hence its composition differs from origin and treatment processes. Wastewater rich in organic matter acts as a soil conditioner, thereby enhancing soil health. Wastewater also acts as a source of nutrient input in agriculture which in turn can reduce, or even eliminate the need for commercial fertilisers. However, wastewater usage in agriculture poses several threats like eutrophication, salinity, toxic chemicals (heavy metal(loids), pesticides), pathogen contamination, and most notably, nutrient leaching, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. These threats affect public health, soil and ground water resources, environment, crop quality, ecological, and property values. Biological degradation of the organic matter present in wastewater is considered one of the anthropogenic sources of major GHGs (carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4). In this paper, an overview of various sources of wastewater, effects of wastewater application on GHG emission from soil, and the strategies to mitigate wastewater-induced GHG emission from soils is presented. © 2012 WIT Press.

Soil salinity is one of the major and widespread challenges in the recent era that hinders global food security and environmental sustainability. Worsening the situation, the harmful impacts of climate change accelerate the development of soil salinity, potentially spreading the problem in the near future to currently unaffected regions. This paper aims to synthesise information from published literature about the extent, development mechanisms, and current mitigation strategies for tackling soil salinity, highlighting the opportunities and challenges under climate change situations. Mitigation approaches such as application of amendments, cultivation of tolerant genotypes, suitable irrigation, drainage and land use strategies, conservation agriculture, phytoremediation, and bioremediation techniques have successfully tackled the soil salinity issue, and offered associated benefits of soil carbon sequestration, and conservation and recycling of natural resources. These management practices further improve the socio-economic conditions of the rural farming community in salt-affected areas. We also discuss emerging reclamation strategies such as saline aquaculture integrated with sub surface drainage, tolerant microorganisms integrated with tolerant plant genotypes, integrated agro-farming systems that warrant future research attention to restore the agricultural sustainability and global food security under climate change scenarios.

With the ever-increasing demand for lithium (Li) for portable energy storage devices, there is a global concern associated with environmental contamination of Li, via the production, use, and disposal of Li-containing products, including mobile phones and mood-stabilizing drugs. While geogenic Li is sparingly soluble, Li added to soil is one of the most mobile cations in soil, which can leach to groundwater and reach surface water through runoff. Lithium is readily taken up by plants and has relatively high plant accumulation coefficient, albeit the underlying mechanisms have not been well described. Therefore, soil contamination with Li could reach the food chain due to its mobility in surface- and ground-waters and uptake into plants. High environmental Li levels adversely affect the health of humans, animals, and plants. Lithium toxicity can be considerably managed through various remediation approaches such as immobilization using clay-like amendments and/or chelate-enhanced phytoremediation. This review integrates fundamental aspects of Li distribution and behaviour in terrestrial and aquatic environments in an effort to efficiently remediate Li-contaminated ecosystems. As research to date has not provided a clear picture of how the increased production and disposal of Li-based products adversely impact human and ecosystem health, there is an urgent need for further studies on this field.

Particulate plastics (<5 mm), including macroplastics (1 µm to 5 mm), microplastics (100 nm to 1 µm) and nanoplastics (<100 nm), have become a global environmental problem due to their widespread occurrence, distribution and ecosystem risk. Although numerous studies on particulate plastics have been conducted in aquatic systems, investigations in the soil ecosystem are lacking. Soil is the main storage place of particulate plastics, conferring significant impacts on plant growth and development. The impact of particulate plastics on plants is directly related to the safety of agricultural products. This review comprehensively examines the pollution characteristics and exposure pathways of particulate plastics in agricultural soils, highlighting plastic uptake process, and mechanisms in plants, and effects of particulate plastics, biodegradable particulate plastics and combined pollution of plastics with other environmental pollutants on plant performances. This review identifies a number of future research prospects including the development of accurate quantitative methods for plastic analysis in soil and plant samples, understanding the environmental behaviors of conventional and biodegradable particulate plastics in the presence and absence of other environmental pollutants, unravelling the fate of particulate plastics in plants, phyto-toxicity and molecular regulatory mechanisms of particultate plastics, and developing best management practices for the production of safe agricultural products in plastic-contaminated soils.

Sediments represent the major sink for released silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in aquatic environments. It is well known that the environmental behavior and toxicity of AgNPs in sediments are governed by their specific chemical species instead of their total concentration. This review focuses on various chemical transformations of AgNPs in sediments, which have not been well outlined before. We first outline the concentrations of AgNPs in sediments. The predicted concentrations are 1¿5 µg kg¿1 in most model studies. Once enter sediments, AgNPs are transformed to different species (e.g., Ag2S, Ag-humic substance complexes, AgCl, and Ag+) during multiple chemical transformations, such as oxidative dissolution, sulfidation, chlorination, and complexation. Those chemical behaviors mitigate the toxicity of AgNPs by reducing their availability and decreasing Ag+ release. Benthic invertebrates and microbes are prone to be affected by AgNPs. AgNPs are found to be accumulated in sediment-dwelling organisms and transferred to higher trophic levels along the food web. Besides X-ray absorption spectroscopy, reliable separation procedures coupled with detection techniques, are powerful tools that characterize the speciation of AgNPs in sediments. More research is needed to investigate diverse chemical transformations in various sediments through development of novel techniques and mathematical models.

Biosolids produced at wastewater treatment facilities are extensively used in agricultural land and degraded mine sites to improve soil health and soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. Many studies have reported increases in SOC due to application of biosolids to such sites. However, lack of a comprehensive quantification on overall trends and changes of magnitude in SOC remains. Here, we performed a meta-analysis to identify drivers with a relationship with SOC stocks. A meta-regression of 297 treatments found four variables with a relationship with SOC stocks: cumulative biosolids carbon (C) input rate, time after application, soil depth and type of biosolids. The cumulative biosolids C input rate was the most influencing driver. The highest mean difference for SOC% of 3.3 was observed at 0¿15 cm soil depth for a cumulative C input of 100 Mg ha-1 at one year after biosolids application. Although years after biosolids application demonstrated a negative relationship with SOC stocks, mineralization of C in biosolids-applied soils is slow, as indicated with the SOC% decrease from 4.6 to 2.8 at 0¿15 cm soil depth over five years of 100 Mg ha-1 biosolids C input. Soil depth illustrated a strong negative effect with SOC stocks decreasing by 2.7% at 0¿15 cm soil depth at a cumulative biosolids C input of 100 Mg ha-1 over a year. Overall, our model estimated an effect of 2.8 SOC% change, indicating the application of biosolids as a viable strategy for soil C sequestration on a global scale.

Weathering of microplastics (MPs, < 5 mm) in terrestrial and aquatic environments affects MP transport and distribution. This paper first summarizes the sources of MPs, including refuse in landfills, biowastes, plastic films, and wastewater discharge. Once MPs enter water and soil, they undergo different weathering processes. MPs can be converted into small molecules (e.g., oligomers and monomers), and may be completely mineralized under the action of free radicals or microorganisms. The rate and extent of weathering of MPs depend on their physicochemical properties and environmental conditions of the media to which they are exposed. In general, water dissipates heat better, and has a lower temperature, than land; thus, the weathering rate of MPs in the aquatic environment is slower than in the terrestrial environment. These weathering processes increase oxygen-containing functional groups and the specific surface area of MPs, which influence the sorption and aggregation that occur between weathered MPs and their co-existing constituents. More studies are needed to investigate the various weathering processes of diverse MPs under natural field conditions in soils, sediments, and aquatic environments, to understand the impact of weathered MPs in the environment.

Smoke haze episodes, resulting from uncontrolled biomass burning (BB) including forest and peat fires, continue to occur in Southeast Asia (SEA), affecting air quality, atmospheric visibility, climate, ecosystems, hydrologic cycle and human health. The pollutant of major concern in smoke haze is airborne particulate matter (PM). A number of fundamental laboratory, field and modeling studies have been conducted in SEA from 2010 to 2020 to investigate potential environmental and health impacts of BB-induced PM. The goal of this review is to bring together the most recent developments in our understanding of various aspects of BB-derived PM based on 127 research articles published from 2010 to 2020, which have not been conveyed in previous reviews. Specifically, this paper discusses the physical, chemical, toxicological and radiative properties of BB-derived PM. It also provides insights into the environmental and health impacts of BB-derived PM, summarizes the approaches taken to do the source apportionment of PM during BB events and discusses the mitigation of exposure to BB-derived PM. Suggestions for future research priorities are outlined. Policies needed to prevent future BB events in the SEA region are highlighted.

Rhizoremediation potential of different wild plant species for total (aliphatic) petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH)-contaminated soils was investigated. Three-week-old seedlings of Acacia inaequilatera, Acacia pyrifolia, Acacia stellaticeps, Banksia seminuda, Chloris truncata, Hakea prostrata, Hardenbergia violacea, and Triodia wiseana were transplanted in a soil contaminated with diesel and engine oil as TPH at pollution levels of 4,370 (TPH1) and 7,500 (TPH2) mg kg-1, and an uncontaminated control (TPH0). After 150 days, the presence of TPH negatively affected the plant growth, but the growth inhibition effect varied between the plant species. Plant growth and associated root biomass influenced the activity of rhizo-microbiome. The presence of B. seminuda, C. truncata, and H. prostrata significantly increased the TPH removal rate (up to 30% compared to the unplanted treatment) due to the stimulation of rhizosphere microorganisms. No significant difference was observed between TPH1 and TPH2 regarding the plant tolerance and rhizoremediation potentials of the three plant species. The presence of TPH stimulated cluster root formation in B. seminuda and H. prostrata which was associated with enhanced TPH remediation of these two members of Proteaceae family. These results indicated that B. seminuda, C. truncata, and H. prostrata wild plant species could be suitable candidates for the rhizoremediation of TPH-contaminated soil.

Excessive amounts of animal manures and production of a large volume of biosolids pose serious environmental issues in terms of their safe disposal and management. Thermochemical treatment of bio-waste materials via pyrolysis can convert them into value-added products such as biochar-based fertilizers. In this study, fourteen biochars were produced from one biosolid and thirteen animal manures by slow pyrolysis at 300 °C. All feedstock and biochar samples were characterized by determining the yield, and physicochemical and surface properties, including the C-containing functional groups. Principal component and cluster analyses were used to classify the feedstock/biochar materials based on their mineral constituents. The biochar yield of various feedstocks ranged from 39 to 81%, with the highest yield for grain-fed cow manure. The highest N and K content was found in chicken manure biochar (57.8 and 29.2 g kg¿1, respectively), while the highest P was found in biosolid biochar (40.5 g kg¿1). The specific surface area of biochars ranged from 96.06¿110.83 m2 g-1. Hierarchical analyses of the chemical compositions of feedstocks and biochars enabled grouping of the materials respectively into four and five distinguished clusters. Three principal components (PC) explained 86.8% and 83.3% of the variances in the feedstocks and biochars, respectively. The PC1 represented the content of the major nutrients (N, P and K), whereas PC2 and PC3 represented other nutrients (secondary and micronutrients) contents and physicochemical properties (pH and EC). The results of this study suggested that biochars produced from different manures and biosolids may potentially be a source of soil nutrients and trace elements. In addition, different biochars may be applied to different nutrient-deficient soils to avoid plausible nutrient and potentially toxic element contamination.

Global plastic pollution has been a serious problem since many years and micro (nano) plastics (MNPs) have gained attention from researchers around the world. This is because MNPs able to exhibit toxicology and interact with potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the environment, causing soil toxicity. The influences of MNPs on the soil systems and plant crops have been overlooked despite that MNPs can accumulate in the plant root system and generate detrimental impacts to the terrestrial environments. The consumption of these MNPs-contaminated plants or fruits by humans and animals will eventually lead to health deterioration. The identification and measurement of MNPs in various soil samples is challenging, making the understanding of the fate, environmental and ecological of MNPs in terrestrial ecosystem is limited. Prior to sample assessment, it is necessary to isolate the plastic particles from the environment samples, concentrate the plastic particles for analysis purpose to meet detection limit for analytical instrument. The isolation and pre-concentrated steps are challenging and may cause sample loss. Herein, this article reviews MNPs, including their fate in the environment and toxic effects exhibited towards soil microorganisms, plants and humans along with the interaction of MNPs with PTEs. In addition, various analysis methods of MNPs and management of MNPs as well as the crucial challenges and future research studies in combating MNPs in soil system are also discussed.

Mono- and co-sorption of the three antibiotics i.e., norfloxacin (NOR), sulfamerazine (SMR) and oxytetracycline (OTC), to raw and NH4+-modified cassava waste biochar added to aqueous solutions were investigated. The NH4+-modified biochar showed higher sorption affinity for both NOR and SMR than the raw biochar, while the raw biochar showed higher sorption affinity for OTC than the modified biochar. The highest sorption to both biochars in both the mono- and competitive sorption systems was found for OTC followed by NOR and SMR. Sorption equilibrium in all systems analyzed was reached within 15 h. Electrostatic interactions among the ionic antibiotics in the multicomponent solution increased NOR and SMR sorption to both biochars. Antibiotics¿ mono- and co-sorption to biochars decreased with increasing solution pH. The co-sorption of NOR and SMR to the two biochars was regulated by p-p electron-donor-acceptor (EDA) interactions; besides, electrostatic interactions and Hydrogen (H-) bonding played an important part. Cation bridging might have been a potential mechanism to contribute to SMR sorption to the raw biochar, and OTC sorption to the NH4+-modified biochar. These observations will improve our understanding of the simultaneous removal of multiple antibiotics from water or wastewater.

The term ¿Total petroleum hydrocarbons¿ (TPH) is used to describe a complex mixture of petroleum-based hydrocarbons primarily derived from crude oil. Those compounds are considered as persistent organic pollutants in the terrestrial environment. A wide array of organic amendments is increasingly used for the remediation of TPH-contaminated soils. Organic amendments not only supply a source of carbon and nutrients but also add exogenous beneficial microorganisms to enhance the TPH degradation rate, thereby improving the soil health. Two fundamental approaches can be contemplated within the context of remediation of TPH-contaminated soils using organic amendments: (i) enhanced TPH sorption to the exogenous organic matter (immobilization) as it reduces the bioavailability of the contaminants, and (ii) increasing the solubility of the contaminants by supplying desorbing agents (mobilization) for enhancing the subsequent biodegradation. Net immobilization and mobilization of TPH have both been observed following the application of organic amendments to contaminated soils. This review examines the mechanisms for the enhanced remediation of TPH-contaminated soils by organic amendments and discusses the influencing factors in relation to sequestration, bioavailability, and subsequent biodegradation of TPH in soils. The uncertainty of mechanisms for various organic amendments in TPH remediation processes remains a critical area of future research.

There is significant interest in the treatment of swine manure, which is a hazardous biowaste and a source of pathogenic contamination. This work investigated the effects of microorganism-mediated inoculants (MMIs) on nutrient flows related to humification or phosphorus (P) dynamics during the aerobic composting of swine manure. The impact of MMIs on microbe succession was also evaluated. The addition of MMIs had positive effects associated with nutrient flows, including thermal activation, decreases in certain fluorescence emissions, lower mass loss and variations in levels of certain elements and functional groups. MMIs altered the maturation behavior and kinetics of organic matter while improving microbial activity. Phosphorus was found in the compost in the forms of MgNH4PO4·6H2O crystals and Poly-P as the IP species, and Mono-P as the OP species in compost generated from the dissolution or inter-transformation among P pools. These nutrient flows are attributed to changes in the structure of microbial communities as a consequence of introducing MMIs. Diverse microbial compositions were identified in different composting phases, although Bacillus appeared in each phase. This work provides support for the aerobic composting of hazardous biowaste as well as an improved understanding of nutrient flows, as a means of producing higher quality compost.

Aqueous film-forming foam, used in firefighting, and biowastes, including biosolids, animal and poultry manures, and composts, provide a major source of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) input to soil. Large amounts of biowastes are added to soil as a source of nutrients and carbon. They also are added as soil amendments to improve soil health and crop productivity. Plant uptake of PFAS through soil application of biowastes is a pathway for animal and human exposure to PFAS. The complexity of PFAS mixtures, and their chemical and thermal stability, make remediation of PFAS in both solid and aqueous matrices challenging. Remediation of PFAS in biowastes, as well as soils treated with these biowastes, can be achieved through preventing and decreasing the concentration of PFAS in biowaste sources (i.e., prevention through source control), mobilization of PFAS in contaminated soil and subsequent removal through leaching (i.e., soil washing) and plant uptake (i.e., phytoremediation), sorption of PFAS, thereby decreasing their mobility and bioavailability (i.e., immobilization), and complete removal through thermal and chemical oxidation (i.e., destruction). In this review, the distribution, bioavailability, and remediation of PFAS in soil receiving solid biowastes, which include biosolids, composts, and manure, are presented.

Around 29% of the world population does not have ready access to safe drinking water. Water contamination is a compelling issue, which needs to be addressed on a priority basis using novel technologies. Heavy metals are the dominant inorganic contaminants found in the water, whereas, organic contaminants are composed of several classes and pose a more widespread problem. The occurrence of radionuclides, such as uranium and caesium in groundwater is also raising a serious issue but it is often understudied. Nanoporous carbons are a good choice for removing water contaminants owing to their excellent physico-chemical properties. Their surface properties, which are highly critical for adsorption, vary significantly with the nature of the precursors used for synthesis. Their textural and surface characteristics can be tuned by adjusting the chemical composition of these precursors or the synthesis conditions, including activation or modification. Such materials can also be supported in a porous matrix, designed into desired morphologies and hybridized with other composite materials for enhancing the application efficiency. The review describes how the low-cost nanoporous carbons are outstanding adsorbent for the water remediation and provide an outlook to tap the unlimited opportunities by researching their new properties.

Amendment of soil with biochar has been widely investigated for soil quality improvement in terms of biotic and abiotic functionalities. The performance of biochar-based amendment varies according to the site characteristics, biochar properties, and soil management targets. There is no existing review that summarizes a broad range of performance indicators to evaluate the health of biochar-amended soil. Based on the latest studies on soil amendment with biochar, this review critically analyzes the soil health indicators that reveal the potential impact of biochar amendment with respect to physicochemical properties, biological properties, and overall soil quality. It is found that soil pH, soil aggregate stability, and soil organic matter are the basic indicators that could influence most of the soil functions, which should be prioritized for measurement. Relevant functional indicators (e.g., erosion rate, crop productivity, and ecotoxicity) should be selected based on the soil management targets of biochar application in agricultural soils. With this review, it is expected that target-oriented performance indicators can be selected in future studies for field-relevant evaluation of soil amendment by biochar under different situations. Therefore, a more cost-effective and purpose-driven assessment protocol for biochar-amended soils can be devised by using relevant measurable attributes suggested in this review.

Microplastics are well known for vector transport of hydrophobic organic contaminants, and there are growing concerns regarding their potential adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. However, recent studies focussing on hydrophilic compounds, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), have shown that the compounds ability to be adsorbed onto plastic surfaces. The extensive use of PPCPs has led to their ubiquitous presence in the environment resulting in their cooccurrence with microplastics. The partitioning between plastics and PPCPs and their fate through vector transport are determined by various physicochemical characteristics and environmental conditions of specific matrices. Although the sorption capacities of microplastics for different PPCP compounds have been investigated extensively, these findings have not yet been synthesized and analyzed critically. The specific objectives of this review were to synthesize and critically assess the various factors that affect the adsorption of hydrophilic compounds such as PPCPs on microplastic surfaces and their fate and transport in the environment. The review also focuses on environmental factors such as pH, salinity, and dissolved organics, and properties of polymers and PPCP compounds, and the relationships with sorption dynamics and mechanisms. Furthermore, the ecotoxicological effects of PPCP-sorbed microplastics on biota and human health are also discussed.

Phosphorus (P)¿engineered biochars (BCP) were prepared via co-pyrolysis of poplar sawdust and monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4) (10 %, w/w) at 300 ¿, 500 ¿ and 700 ¿ to evaluate their potential lead [Pb(II)] adsorption. Effects of pH, contact time, and initial Pb(II) concentration on the Pb(II) adsorption capacity of the biochars were investigated. The physico-chemical, morphological, porous structure, crystallinity and spectroscopic characteristics of pre- and post-Pb-adsorbed biochars were analyzed to unravel the Pb(II) adsorption mechanism. Results showed that KH2PO4 reacted with biomass carbon to form stable C¿P and/or C¿O¿P groups in BCP, and increased carbon retention and aromaticity of BCP. However, the addition of KH2PO4 led to an adverse effect on porous structure, e.g. surface area of biochars produced at 300 ¿, 500 ¿ and 700 ¿ were decreased by 41.53 %, 80.32 %, and 59.74 %, respectively. Adsorption experiments displayed that BCP produced at 300 ¿ exhibited the highest Pb(II) adsorption capacity (qmax = 154.7 mg g-1), which was almost 6 times higher than the pristine biochar (qmax = 24.3 mg g-1). Potassium polymetaphosphate [(KPO3)n] particles were attached on the surface of BCP, which facilitated the precipitation of Pb(II) to form [Pb(PO3)2]n, Pb5(PO4)3OH and PbHPO4. This study thus demonstrated the effect of pyrolysis temperature on the enhancing removal capability of P-modified biochar for Pb(II) from aqueous solutions.

Micro-and nano-plastics (MNPs) (size < 5 mm/<100 nm) epitomize one of the emergent environmental pollutants with its existence all around the globe. Their high persistence nature and release of chemicals/additives used in synthesis of plastics materials may pose cascading impacts on living organism across the globe. Natural connectivity of all the environmental compartments (terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric) leads to migration/dispersion of MNPs from one compartment to others. Nevertheless, the information on dispersion of MNPs across the environmental compartments and its possible impacts on living organisms are still missing. This review first acquaints with dispersion mechanisms of MNPs in the environment, its polymeric/oligomeric and chemical constituents and then emphasized its impacts on living organism. Based on the existing knowledge about the MNPs¿ constituent and its potential impacts on the viability, development, lifecycle, movements, and fertility of living organism via several potential mechanisms, such as irritation, oxidative damage, digestion impairment, tissue deposition, change in gut microbial communities¿ dynamics, impaired fatty acid metabolism, and molecular damage are emphasized. Finally, at the end, the review provided the challenges associated with remediation of plastics pollutions and desirable strategies, policies required along with substantial gaps in MNPs research were recommended for future studies.

Slags are a co-product produced by the steel manufacturing industry and have mainly been utilised for aggregates in concreting and road construction. The increased utilisation of slag can increase economic growth and sustainability for future generations by creating a closed-loop system, circular economy within the metallurgical industries. Slags can be used as a soil amendment, and slag characteristics may reduce leachate potential of heavy metals, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as contain essential nutrients required for agricultural use and environmental remediation. This review aims to examine various slag generation processes in steel plants, their physicochemical characteristics in relation to beneficial utilisation as a soil amendment, and environmental implications and risk assessment of their utilisation in agricultural soils. In relation to enhancing recycling of these resources, current and emerging techniques to separate iron and phosphorus slag compositions are also outlined in this review. Although there are no known immediate direct threats posed by slag on human health, the associated risks include potential heavy metal contamination, leachate contamination, and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in plants, thereby reaching the food chain. Further research in this area is required to assess the long-term effects of slag in agricultural soils on animal and human health.

Valorisation of food waste offers an economical and environmental opportunity, which can reduce the problems of its conventional disposal. Food waste is commonly disposed of in landfills or incinerated, causing many environmental, social, and economic issues. Large amounts of food waste are produced in the food supply chain of agriculture: production, post-harvest, distribution (transport), processing, and consumption. Food waste can be valorised into a range of products, including biofertilisers, bioplastics, biofuels, chemicals, and nutraceuticals. Conversion of food waste into these products can reduce the demand of fossil-derived products, which have historically contributed to large amounts of pollution. The variety of food chain suppliers offers a wide range of feedstocks that can be physically, chemically, or biologically altered to form an array of biofertilisers and soil amendments. Composting and anaerobic digestion are the main large-scale conversion methods used today to valorise food waste products to biofertilisers and soil amendments. However, emerging conversion methods such as dehydration, biochar production, and chemical hydrolysis have promising characteristics, which can be utilised in agriculture as well as for soil remediation. Valorising food waste into biofertilisers and soil amendments has great potential to combat land degradation in agricultural areas. Biofertilisers are rich in nutrients that can reduce the dependability of using conventional mineral fertilisers. Food waste products, unlike mineral fertilisers, can also be used as soil amendments to improve productivity. These characteristics of food wastes assist in the remediation of contaminated soils. This paper reviews the volume of food waste within the food chain and types of food waste feedstocks that can be valorised into various products, including the conversion methods. Unintended consequences of the utilisation of food waste as biofertilisers and soil-amendment products resulting from their relatively low concentrations of trace element nutrients and presence of potentially toxic elements are also evaluated.

Emerging organic pollutants (EOPs) are serious environmental concerns known for their prominent adverse and hazardous ecological effects, and persistence in nature. Their detrimental impacts have inspired researchers to develop the strategic tools that reduce and overcome the challenges caused by EOPs' rising concentration. As such, biochar becomes as a promising class of biomass-derived functional materials that can be used as low-cost and environmentally-friendly emerging catalysts to remove EOPs. Herein, in-depth synthetic strategies and formation mechanisms of biochar-based nitrogen functionalities during thermochemical conversion are presented. Most prominently, the factors affecting N-surface functionalities in biochar are discussed, emphasizing the most effective N-doping approach, including intrinsic N-doping from biomass feedstock and extrinsic N-doping from exogenous sources. Moreover, biochar-assisted EOPs removal in line with interactions of nitrogen functionalities and contaminants are discussed. The possible reaction mechanisms, i.e., radical and non-radical degradation, physical adsorption, Lewis acid-base interaction, and chemisorption, driven by N-functionalities, are addressed. The unresolved challenges of the potential applications of biochar-mediated functionalities for EOPs removal are emphasized and the outlooks of future research directions are proposed at the end.

The increased use of estuarine waters for commercial and recreational activities is one consequence of urbanisation. Western Australia's Peel-Harvey Estuary highlights the impacts of urbanisation, with a rapidly developing boating industry and periodic dredging activity. The aim of this research is to evaluate the potential mobility of nutrients and trace elements during dredging, and the influence of flocculation on iron and sulfur partitioning in iron monosulfide enriched sediments. Our findings indicate a short-term increase in nitrate, phosphate and ammonium, during dredging through the resuspension of sediments. However, no increase in metal mobilisation during dredging was observed except copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn). Flocculant addition increased the release of nutrients, zinc (Zn) and arsenic (As) from sediments, had no effect on acid volatile sulfides and pyritic sulfur, but corresponded with an initial sharp rise in elemental sulfur concentrations. The run-off water from geofabric bags should be treated to decrease the concentrations of Zn and As to their background levels before releases into the estuary. Long-term impact of dredging on organic matter mineralisation and its subsequent effect on nutrients and trace elements dynamics needs further investigation.

Shooting range soils contain mixed heavy metal contaminants including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and zinc (Zn). Phosphate (P) compounds have been used to immobilize these metals, particularly Pb, thereby reducing their bioavailability. However, research on immobilization of Pb's co-contaminants showed the relative importance of soluble and insoluble P compounds, which is critical in evaluating the overall success of in situ stabilization practice in the sustainable remediation of mixed heavy metal contaminated soils. Soluble synthetic P fertilizer (diammonium phosphate; DAP) and reactive (Sechura; SPR) and unreactive (Christmas Island; CPR) natural phosphate rocks (PR) were tested for Cd, Pb and Zn immobilization and later their mobility and bioavailability in a shooting range soil. The addition of P compounds resulted in the immobilization of Cd, Pb and Zn by 1.56¿76.2%, 3.21¿83.56%, and 2.31¿74.6%, respectively. The reactive SPR significantly reduced Cd, Pb and Zn leaching while soluble DAP increased their leachate concentrations. The SPR reduced the bioaccumulation of Cd, Pb and Zn in earthworms by 7.13¿23.4% and 14.3¿54.6% in comparison with earthworms in the DAP and control treatment, respectively. Bioaccessible Cd, Pb and Zn concentrations as determined using a simplified bioaccessibility extraction test showed higher long-term stability of P-immobilized Pb and Zn than Cd. The differential effect of P-induced immobilization between P compounds and metals is due to the variation in the solubility characteristics of P compounds and nature of metal phosphate compounds formed. Therefore, Pb and Zn immobilization by P compounds is an effective long-term remediation strategy for mixed heavy metal contaminated soils.

Co-composting biowastes such as manures and biosolids can be used to stabilize carbon (C) without impacting the quality of these biowastes. This study investigated the effect of co-composting biowastes with alkaline materials on C stabilization and monitored the fertilization and revegetation values of these co-composts. The stabilization of C in biowastes (poultry manure and biosolids) was examined by their composting in the presence of various alkaline amendments (lime, fluidized bed boiler ash, flue gas desulphurization gypsum, and red mud) for 6¿months in a controlled environment. The effects of co-composting on the biowastes¿ properties were assessed for different physical C fractions, microbial biomass C, priming effect, potentially mineralizable nitrogen, bioavailable phosphorus, and revegetation of an urban landfill soil. Co-composting biowastes with alkaline materials increased C stabilization, attributed to interaction with alkaline materials, thereby protecting it from microbial decomposition. The co-composted biowastes also increased the fertility of the landfill soil, thereby enhancing its revegetation potential. Stabilization of biowastes using alkaline materials through co-composting maintains their fertilization value in terms of improving plant growth. The co-composted biowastes also contribute to long-term soil C sequestration and reduction of bioavailability of heavy metals.

Two experiments were conducted where three biochars, made from macadamia nutshell (MS), hardwood shaving (WS) and chicken litter (CL), were co-composted with chicken manure and sawdust, and also incubated with a chicken litter based commercial compost. Biochars were added at the rates of 5% and 10% in the co-composting and 10% and 20% in the incubation experiment. The rates of biochar had no consistent effect on the change in element contents of composted- or incubated-biochars. The biochar C demonstrated recalcitrance in both composting and incubation systems. Composting increased the CEC of biochars probably due to thermophilic oxidation. The increases in CEC of WS and CL were 6.5 and 2.2 times, respectively, for composting. Translocation of elements, between biochar and compost medium, occurred in both directions. In most cases, biochars gained elements under the influence of positive difference of concentrations (i.e., when compost medium had higher concentration of elements than biochar), while in some cases they lost elements despite a positive difference. Biochar lost some elements (WS: B; CL: B, Mg and S) under the influence of negative difference of concentrations. Some biochars showed strong affinity for B, C, N and S: the concentration of these elements gained by biochars surpassed the concentration in the respective composting medium. The material difference in the biochars did not have influence on N retention: all three netbag-biochars increased their N content. The cost of production of biochar-compost will be lower in co-composting than incubation, which involves two separate processes, i.e., composting and subsequent incubation.

Nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) deposition are important drivers of global climate change, but their effects on litter decomposition remain unclear in the subtropical regions. We investigated the influences of N, S, and their interactions on the decomposition of 13C-labeled Pinus massoniana leaf litter. An orthogonal experiment with three levels of N (0, 81, and 270¿mg N¿kg-1 soil) and S (0, 121, and 405¿mg S¿kg-1 soil) was conducted. We traced the incorporation of 13C-litter into carbon dioxide (CO2), dissolved organic C (DOC), and microbial phospholipids. Over the 420-day incubation, litter decomposition did not respond to low N and S additions but increased under high levels and combined amendments (NS). However, litter-derived CO2 emissions were enhanced during the first 56¿days, with a positive interaction of N × S. N additions promoted fungal growth, while S stimulated growth of Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, and actinobacteria. Increased decomposition was related to higher litter-derived DOC and fungi/bacteria ratio. Inversely, N and/or S amendments inhibited decomposition (N > NS > S) from day 57 afterwards, possibly due to C limitation and decreased abundances of Gram-negative bacteria and actinobacteria. These results suggested that N deposition interacted with S to affect litter decomposition, and this effect depended on N and S deposition levels and litter decomposition stage.

Regular application of phosphate (P) fertilisers has been identified as the main source of heavy metal(loid) contamination including cadmium (Cd) in agricultural soils. Some of these P fertilisers that act as a source of Cd contamination of soils have also been found to act as a sink for the immobilisation of this metal(loid). In paddy soils, redox reactions play an important role in the (im)mobilisation of nutrients and heavy metal(loid)s, as a result of flooding of the rice plains. Although a number of studies have examined the potential value of P compounds in the immobilisation of metals in contaminated soils, there has been no comprehensive review on the mechanisms involved in the P-induced (im)mobilisation of Cd in paddy soils. There are a number of factors that influences P induced Cd (im)mobilisation in paddy soils that include pH, redox reactions, liming effect, rhizosphere acidification and root iron plaques. Following a brief overview of the reactions of Cd and common P compounds that are used as fertiliser in soils, the review focuses on the above mentioned mechanisms for the (im)mobilisation of Cd by P compounds in paddy soils. The role of iron plaques on Cd status in soil and rice plants is also discussed followed by a summary and future research needs.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of fertilizer application on heterotrophic soil respiration (Rh) in soil respiration (Rs) components in red pine stands. Two types of fertilizer (N3P4K1 = 113:150:37 kg·ha-1·year-1; P4K1 = 150:37 kg·ha-1·year-1) were applied manually on the forest floor for two years. Rs and Rh rates were monitored from April 2011 to March 2013. Mean Rs and Rh rates were not significantly affected by fertilizer applications. However, Rh in the second year following fertilizer application fell to 27% for N3P4K1 and 17% in P4K1 treatments, while there was an increase of 5% in the control treatments compared with the first fertilization year. The exponential relationships between Rs or Rh rates and the corresponding soil temperature were significant (Rh: R2 = 0.86-0.90; p < 0.05; Rs: R2 = 0.86-0.91; p < 0.05) in the fertilizer and control treatments. Q10 values (Rs increase per 10°C increase in temperature) in Rs rates were lowest for the N3P4K1 treatment (3.47), followed by 3.62 for the P4K1 treatment and 3.60 in the control treatments, while Rh rates were similar among the treatments (3.59-3.64). The results demonstrate the importance of separating Rh rates from Rs rates following a compound fertilizer application.

Arsenic (As) contamination of groundwater reservoirs is a global environmental and health issue given to its toxic and carcinogenic nature. Over 170 million people have been affected by As due to the ingestion of As-contaminated groundwater. Conventional methods such as reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and electrodialysis are commonly used for the remediation of As-contaminated water; however, the high cost and sludge production put limitations on their application to remove As from water. This review critically addresses the use of various agricultural waste materials (e.g., sugarcane bagasse, peels of various fruits, wheat straw) as biosorbents, thereby offering an eco-friendly and low-cost solution for the removal of As from contaminated water supplies. The effect of solution chemistry such as solution pH, cations, anions, organic ligands, and various other factors (e.g., temperature, contact time, sorbent dose) on As biosorption, and safe disposal methods for As-loaded biosorbents to reduce secondary As contamination are also discussed.

The stabilisation of Pb in the soil by phosphate is influenced by environmental conditions and physicochemical properties of the soils to which it is applied. Stabilisation of Pb by phosphate was examined in four soils under different environmental conditions.The effect of soil moisture and temperature on stabilisation of Pb by phosphate was examined by measurement of water extractable and bioaccessible Pb, sequential fractionation and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The addition of humic acid, ammonium nitrate and chloride was also examined for inhibition or improvement of Pb stability with phosphate treatment.The effect of moisture level varied between soils. In soil MB and DA a soil moisture level of 50% water holding capacity was sufficient to maximise stabilisation of Pb, but in soil TV and PE reduction in bioaccessible Pb was inhibited at this moisture level. Providing moisture at twice the soil water holding capacity did not enhance the effect of phosphate on Pb stabilisation. The difference of Pb stability as a result of incubating phosphate treated soils at 18 °C and 37 °C was relatively small. However wet-dry cycles decreased the effectiveness of phosphate treatment. The reduction in bioaccessible Pb obtained was between 20 and 40% with the most optimal treatment conditions. The reduction in water extractable Pb by phosphate was substantial regardless of incubation conditions and the effect of different temperature and soil moisture regimes was not significant.Selective sequential extraction showed phosphate treatment converted Pb in fraction 1 (exchangeable, acid and water soluble) to fraction 2 (reducible). There were small difference in fraction 4 (residual) Pb and fraction 1 as a result of treatment conditions. X-ray absorption spectroscopy of stabilised PE soil revealed small differences in Pb speciation under varying soil moisture and temperature treatments. The addition of humic acid and chloride produced the greatest effect on Pb speciation in phosphate treated soils.

© 2016 Elsevier LtdThe alkaline residue generated from the production of soda ash using the ammonia-soda method has been successfully used in removing phosphorus (P) from aqueous solution. But the accumulation of P-containing solid after P removal is an undesirable menace to the environment. To achieve the goal of recycling, this study explored the feasibility of reusing the P loaded alkaline residue as an amendment for immobilization of lead (Pb) in a shooting range soil. The main crystalline phase and micromorphology of amendments were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy-electron dispersion spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) methods. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), sequential extraction procedure, and physiologically based extraction test (PBET) were employed to evaluate the effectiveness of Pb immobilization in soil after 45¿d incubation. Treatment with P loaded alkaline residue was significantly effective in reducing the TCLP and PBET extractable Pb concentrations in contrast to the untreated soil. Moreover, a positive change in the distribution of Pb fractions was observed in the treated soil, i.e., more than 60% of soil-Pb was transformed to the residual fraction compared to the original soil. On the other hand, P loaded amendments also resulted in a drastic reduction in phytoavailable Pb to the winter wheat and a mild release of P as a nutrient in treated soil, which also confirmed the improvement of soil quality.

This study evaluated the effects of abattoir wastewater irrigation on plant growth and development. The soils used in this study were collected from Primo Smallgoods Abattoir (Port Wakefield, South Australia) at different sites such as currently irrigated (CI), currently not irrigated (CNI) and soil outside the irrigation area as control (CTRL). A completely randomised block design was employed for the plant growth experiment, where four crops (Pennisetum purpureum, Medicago sativa, Sinapis alba and Helianthus annuus) were grown separately on three different soils (CI, CNI and CTRL) in plastic pots. Two types of water (tap water and wastewater) and two loadings were applied throughout the planting period based on the field capacity (FC 100 and 150¿%). The overall dry matter yield was compared between the soils and treatments. Under wastewater irrigation, among the four species grown in the CI soil, P. purpureum (171¿g) and H. annuus (151¿g) showed high biomass yields, followed by S. alba (115¿g) and M. sativa (31¿g). The plants grown under tap water showed about 70¿% lower yields compared to the abattoir wastewater irrigation (AWW). Similar trends in the biomass yields were observed for CNI and CTRL soils under the two water treatments, with the biomass yields in the following order CI > CNI > CTRL soils. The results confirm the beneficial effects of AWW at the greenhouse level. However, a proper cropping pattern and wastewater irrigation management plan is essential to utilise the nutrients available in the wastewater-irrigated land treatment sites. The increase in fertility is evident from the effects of wastewater on biomass growth and also the abundance of nutrients accumulated in plants. A mass balance calculation on the applied, residual and the plant-accumulated nutrients over a few cropping periods will help us in understanding the nutrient cycling processes involved in the abattoir-irrigated land treatment sites, which will serve as an effective tool for the environmental management.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural operations continue to increase. Carbon (C)-enriched char materials like biochar have been described as a mitigation strategy. Utilization of biochar material as a soil amendment has been demonstrated to provide potentially greater soil GHG suppression due to its interactions in the soil system. However, these effects are variable and the duration of the impact remains uncertain. Various (nano)materials can be used to modify chars to obtain surface functionality to mitigate GHG emissions. This review critically focusses on the innovative methodologies for improving char efficiency, underpinning GHG mitigation and C sequestration.

Heavy metals such as chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As) occur in ionic form in soil, with chromate [Cr(VI)] and arsenate As(V) being the most pre-dominant forms. The application of biochar to Cr(VI) and As(V) spiked and field contaminated soils was evaluated on the reduction processes [(Cr(VI) to Cr(III)] and [As(V) to As(III))], and subsequent mobility and bioavailability of both As(V) and Cr(VI). The assays used in this study included leaching, soil microbial activity and XPS techniques. The reduction rate of As(V) was lower than that of Cr(VI) with and without biochar addition, however, supplementation with biochar enhanced the reduction process of As(V). Leaching experiments indicated Cr(VI) was more mobile than As(V). Addition of biochar reversed the effect by reducing the mobility of Cr and increasing that of As. The presence of Cr and As in both spiked and contaminated soils reduced microbial activity, but with the addition of biochar to these soils, the microbial activity increased in the Cr(VI) contaminated soils, while it was further decreased with As(V) contaminated soils. The addition of biochar was effective in mitigating Cr toxicity by reducing Cr(VI) to Cr(III). In contrast, the conversion process of As(V) to As(III) hastened by biochar was not favourable, as As(III) is more toxic in soils. Overall, the presence of functional groups on biochar promotes reduction by providing the electrons required for reduction processes to occur as determined by XPS data.

Soil clay minerals significantly influence the accumulation and stabilization of organic carbon (OC). However, the effect of interactions among phyllosilicate clay minerals, native OC and sesquioxides (Fe/Al oxides) on the adsorption-desorption of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) under different background electrolyte types and concentration is poorly understood. A set of batch adsorption-desorption experiments were conducted using pedogenic clays extracted from soils dominated by kaolinite-illite (Kaol-Ill), smectite (Smec) and allophane (Allo). The clay samples were sequentially treated to remove native OC and sesquioxides, and tested for adsorption-desorption of DOC under various solution conditions. All the experiments were conducted at pH 7 using water extractable fraction of OC from wheat residues. DOC adsorption increased with increasing background electrolyte concentration, and the presence of Ca2+ significantly enhanced the uptake in comparison to Na+ due to a possible cationic bridging effect. Under all electrolyte conditions, the maximum DOC adsorption capacity (Qmax) (mg g-1) of the soil clay fractions (SCF) maintained the order: Allo > Smec > Kaol-Ill. A similar order was also observed when the adsorption capacities were normalized to the specific surface area (SSA) of the SCFs (mg m-2). DOC adsorption showed a positive relationship with SSA, and sesquioxides and allophanic minerals provided the largest contributions to the SSA in the SCF. Removal of sesquioxides from the SCF resulted in a decrease in SSA and thus DOC adsorption, whereas removal of native OC increased the SSA and subsequent DOC adsorption. Because this study used pedogenic SCFs which represented soils formed in different environments instead of processed clays from geological deposits, it provided realistic information about the interaction of DOC with SCF in relation to their native OC and sesquioxide contents. It also revealed the importance of Ca2+ in enhancing the carbon adsorption capacities of these SCFs.

White leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei.) farming effluent contains pollutants that include high levels of organic matter (OM) nutrients and growth- promoting substances. This study investigated the effects of varied concentrations of white leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannameij farm wastewater 0, 50, 75 and 100%, on the survival rate (SR) of three finfish species: tilapia fOreochromis niloticusj, grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) and rabbit fish (Siganus guttatus.) as part of screening their potential in removing organic matter from the effluent of white leg shrimp farming. The different initial levels of shrimp wastewater from 50% to 100% had no significant effect on the survival rate of tilapia and mullet; but the survival rate of S. guttatus significantly decreased with increasing shrimp wastewater (P < 0.05). The results showed that the removal of BOD, COD and TSS occurred in the range of 66-83, 68-81 and 30-54%; respectively and the removal efficiency of OM by mullet was higher than Tilapia in all treatments. The study also indicated that the reduction highest removal of BOD, COD and TSS was achieved being 83.1%, 80.7and 53,7% respectively, at the medium stocking density (25 fish/m2) of mullet.

Heavy metal contamination in rice paddies is a serious problem in monsoon Asia, and these fields require appropriate restoration measures. Although soil washing is a promising remediation technology, high cost for the treatment on soil washing leachate (wastewater) is one of the critical problems. This study sought to develop a simple method for the restoration of paddy fields by soil washing, with simplified wastewater treatment. Ferric chloride solution (FeCl3) was used as a washing chemical to extract Cd from a soil, which produced the wastewater containing Cd and other metals. Three alkali materials (NaOH, MgO, and CaCO3) were tested to treat the wastewater and determined MgO is optimal. In an on-site experiment, the target pH for wastewater treatment was controlled between 8 and 9 by using MgO. All metals in the wastewater could be effectively removed, reaching levels substantially lower than those permitted by Japanese standards. The treated wastewater could be discharged to agricultural canal. Therefore, our novel simplified method effectively removed heavy metals from the wastewater produced by on-site soil washing and contribute drive down the cost.

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland Background and aims: Soil amendments are often added to polluted soils to increase phytoremediation efficiency. Here we investigated the potential of a range of organic amendments for phytoextraction of heavy metals in a contaminated sediment. Methods: Two experiments compared adsorption and phytoextraction of heavy metals by a Cd-hyperaccumulator Carpobrotus rossii grown in the contaminated sediment amended with six organic amendments. Results: The adsorption capacity as measured by Langmuir adsorption maximum followed the order of Cr > Zn > Cu > Cd, and the effect of organic amendments followed the order of chicken manure > cow manure > brown coal > golden wattle biochar > blue gum biochar > radiata pine biochar. The addition of amendments increased the adsorption of heavy metals, with brown coal resulting in the lowest concentrations of water-extractable Cd, Cu and Zn. Two manures resulted in the highest concentrations of these water-extractable heavy metals in the rhizosphere soil of C. rossii. Furthermore, brown coal resulted in higher shoot accumulation of these heavy metals than three wood-derived biochars, whilst the manures generally had the lowest accumulation of Cd and Cu although they increased shoot biomass. Conclusions: The addition of brown coal decreased whereas manure addition increased the mobility (water-extractable fraction) of heavy metals in rhizosphere soil. Phytoextraction of Cd and Cu was greater with brown coal than with biochars or manures. Brown coal is suitable for enhancing phytoextraction of these heavy metals because it could increase their accumulation in shoots of C. rossii and decrease the risk of leaching of these heavy metals into groundwater.

© 2015 British Society of Soil Science. Changes in agricultural management strategies have received much attention in recent years with a view to increasing or maintaining the amount of carbon (C) sequestered as soil organic C (SOC). In many parts of the world, minimum or no-till management has been promoted as a means of improving soil quality, reducing losses of erosion and potentially increasing SOC stocks. However, no-till systems can become problematic and potentially disease-prone, especially due to high crop residue loadings. Consequently, residue removal either by harvesting or burning off may be employed to reduce these pressures. Here, we examined the effect of crop residue removal on C storage in soil that had been under no-till management for 20 yr. We predicted improved physical properties (i.e. lower bulk density) and greater microbial activity under the residue retention soils due to greater readily available C and nutrients derived from crop residues. In contrast, we predicted relative reductions in SOC in the no residue soils due to a lack of available residue-derived C for microbial use. Residue removal caused a relative C loss from the soil, which was related to C input, amount of nutrient availability and microbial activity. We demonstrate the importance of maintaining crop residue cover in no-till cropping systems for soil function and highlight the potentially deleterious effects of changing management strategy to increased residue harvesting or removal by burning.

The sorption of chromium (Cr) species to soil has become the focus of research as it dictates the bioavailability and also the magnitude of toxicity of Cr. The sorption of two environmentally important Cr species [Cr(III) and Cr(VI)] was examined using batch sorption, and the data were fitted to Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms. The effects of soil properties such as pH, CEC, organic matter (OM), clay, water-extractable SO42- and PO43-, surface charge, and different iron (Fe) fractions of 12 different Australian representative soils on the sorption, and mobility of Cr(III) and Cr(VI) were examined. The amount of sorption as shown by K f was higher for Cr(III) than Cr(VI) in all tested soils. Further, the amount of Cr(III) sorbed increased with an increase in pH, CEC, clay, and OM of soils. Conversely, the chemical properties of soil such as positive charge and Fe (crystalline) had a noticeable influence on the sorption of Cr(VI). Desorption of Cr(VI) occurred rapidly and was greater than desorption of Cr(III) in soils. The mobility of Cr species as estimated by the retardation factor was higher for Cr(VI) than for Cr(III) in all tested soils. These results concurred with the results from leaching experiments which showed higher leaching of Cr(VI) than Cr(III) in both acidic and alkaline soils indicating the higher mobility of Cr(VI) in a wide range of soils. This study demonstrated that Cr(VI) is more mobile and will be bioavailable in soils regardless of soil properties and if not remediated may eventually pose a severe threat to biota. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

This study aims to examine the effectiveness of amendments for risk-based land management of shooting range soils and to explore the effectiveness of amendments applied to sites with differing soil physiochemical parameters. A series of amendments with differing mechanisms for stabilisation were applied to four shooting range soils and aged for 1¿year. Chemical stabilisation was monitored by pore water extraction, toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) and the physiologically based extraction test (PBET) over 1¿year. The performance of amendments when applied in conditions reflecting field application did not match the performance in the batch studies. Pore water-extractable metals were not greatly affected by amendment addition. TCLP-extractable Pb was reduced significantly by amendments, particularly lime and magnesium oxide. Antimony leaching was reduced by red mud but mobilised by some of the other amendments. Bioaccessible Pb measured by PBET shows that bioaccessible Pb increased with time after an initial decrease due to the presence of metallic fragments in the soil. Amendments were able to reduce bioaccessible Pb by up to 50¿%. Bioaccessible Sb was not readily reduced by soil amendments. Soil amendments were not equally effective across the four soils. © 2013 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Australia.

This study was conducted to evaluate the dynamics of soil respiration (total soil and heterotrophic respiration) following fertilizer application in red pine forests. Fertilizer (N:P:K = 113:150:37 kg/ha), which reflects current practices in Korean forest, was applied in April 2011, and total soil and heterotrophic respiration rates were monitored from April 2011 to March 2012. Monthly variation of total soil and heterotrophic respiration rates were similar between the fertilizer and control treatments, as soil temperature was the dominant factor controlling the both rates. Total soil respiration rates during the study period were not significantly different between the fertilizer (0.504 g CO2 m-2 h-1) and control (0.501 g CO2 m-2 h-1) treatments. However, the proportion of heterotrophic respiration was higher in the fertilizer (78% of total soil respiration rates) than in the control (62% of total soil respiration rates) treatments. These results suggest that current fertilizer practices in Korea forest soil do not substantially affect total soil respiration rates. © The Ecological Society of Korea.

Shooting ranges have come under increased scrutiny in recent years as a potential source of contamination owing to the high loading of lead in the soil. Stabilization by the addition of chemical amendments has been examined as a viable risk-based approach to managing shooting range contamination. Amendments have been shown to immobilize metals to varying degrees, determined by the target contaminant, the amendment used, soil properties, and the reaction kinetics in the contaminated soil and amendment system. Field scale evaluation of the effectiveness of chemical amendments for the stabilization of metal contaminants in shooting range soil is limited. Doubt remains over effectiveness and long-term stability under the varying conditions found in the field, which affect the kinetics of immobilization and dissolution in amended soil. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.

As land application becomes one of the important waste utilization and disposal practices, soil is increasingly being seen as a major source of metal(loid)s reaching food chain, mainly through plant uptake and animal transfer. With greater public awareness of the implications of contaminated soils on human and animal health there has been increasing interest in developing technologies to remediate contaminated sites. Bioremediation is a natural process which relies on soil microorganisms and higher plants to alter metal(loid) bioavailability and can be enhanced by addition of organic amendments to soils. Large quantities of organic amendments, such as manure compost, biosolid and municipal solid wastes are used as a source of nutrients and also as a conditioner to improve the physical properties and fertility of soils. These organic amendments that are low in metal(loid)s can be used as a sink for reducing the bioavailability of metal(loid)s in contaminated soils and sediments through their effect on the adsorption, complexation, reduction and volatilization of metal(loid)s. This review examines the mechanisms for the enhanced bioremediation of metal(loid)s by organic amendments and discusses the practical implications in relation to sequestration and bioavailability of metal(loid)s in soils. © 2010 Elsevier B.V.