Professor Nanthi Bolan

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Mine sites can be a potential threat to public health due to the risk of polluting nearby groundwater and soils. During the early mining period, mining companies had less strict remediation codes than those in place now, and waste material was customarily disposed in heaps (tailings) in the direct vicinity of the mine (Johnson et al. 2016; Pascaud et al. 2015). Once the ore was exhausted, companies either closed down or moved out, many of them leaving their mining waste behind. These abandoned wastes are considered among the worst environmental problems and a serious hazard to ecosystems and human health (Anawar 2015; Fields 2003; Hudson-Edwards et al. 2011). Tailing deposits generated from mining activities pose a potential risk for the soil and aquatic environments through the release of potentially toxic metal(loid)s occurring in a variety of minerals present in the tailings (Anawar 2015; Hudson-Edwards et al. 2011). Heavy metal(loid)s include both biologically essential (e.g., cobalt [Co], copper [Cu], chromium [Cr], manganese [Mn], and zinc [Zn]) and nonessential (e.g., arsenic [As], cadmium [Cd], lead [Pb], and mercury [Hg]) elements. The nonessential elements are highly toxic; however, at excessive concentrations, both groups are toxic to plants, animals, and/or humans (Adriano 2001; Alloway 1990)

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. The dynamics of trace elements in soils is dependent on both their physicochemical interactions with inorganic and organic soil constituents and their biological interactions linked to the microbial activities of soil-plant systems. Microorganisms control the transformation (microbial or biotransformation) of trace elements by several mechanisms that include oxidation, reduction, methylation, demethylation, complex formation, and biosorption. Microbial transformation plays a major role in the behavior and fate of toxic elements, especially arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), and selenium (Se) in soils and sediments. Biotransformation processes can alter the speciation and redox state of these elements and hence control their solubility and subsequent mobility. These processes play an important role in the bioavailability, mobility, ecotoxicity, and environmental health of these trace elements. A greater understanding of biotransformation processes is necessary to efficiently manage and utilize them for contaminant removal and to develop in situ bioremediation technologies. In this chapter, the key microbial transformation processes, including biosorption, redox reactions, and methylation/demethylation reactions controlling the fate and behavior of As, Cr, Hg, and Se, are addressed. The factors affecting these processes in relation to the bioavailability and remediation of trace elements in the environment are also examined, and possible future research directions are recommended.

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Acid mine drainage (AMD) from both active and abandoned mine sites is a major environmental issue for the mining industry in environmentally concerned regions of the world (Gray 1997, Lindsay et al. 2015). The term is used to describe any seepage, leachate, or drainage affected by the oxidation products of sulfide minerals in mine sites when exposed to air and water (Figure 3.1). Both chemical reactions and biological transformations are recognized as being responsible for generating AMD (Lindsay et al. 2015). AMD is typically characterized by low pH and high levels of dissolved metal salts, as well as high concentrations of acidity, sulfate, iron, and other metals (Gray 1997). Once the AMD process begins, it is difficult to control, often accelerates, and is likely to persist for decades or centuries. In the absence of natural or added neutralizing materials 34(carbonate minerals such as calcite or dolomite), the AMD is likely to contain toxic levels of heavy metals such as Fe, Al, Mn, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd, which can cause serious environmental problems in soil and water systems (Sengupta 1994)

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Spoil to Soil: Mine Site Rehabilitation and Revegetation presents both fundamental and practical aspects of remediation and revegetation of mine sites. Through three major themes, it examines characterization of mine site spoils; remediation of chemical, physical and biological constraints of mine site spoils, including post mine-site land-use practices; and revegetation of remediated mine site spoils. Each theme includes chapters featuring case studies involving mine sites around the world. The final section focuses specifically on case studies with successful mine site rehabilitation. The book provides a narrative of how inert spoil can be converted to live soil. Instructive illustrations show mine sites before and after rehabilitation. The purpose of this book is to provide students, scientists, and professional personnel in the mining industry sensible, science-based information needed to rehabilitate sustainably areas disturbed by mining activities. This book is suitable for undergraduate and graduate students majoring in environmental, earth, and soil sciences; environmental and soil scientists; and mine site environmental engineers and regulators

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. The Australian beef cattle industry is one of the most efficient and ranks third largest in beef export in the world, contributing 4% of beef supply. As on 2013, the meat value produced from beef cattle, in Australia is estimated to be $12.3 billion (Fastfacts, 2013). Beef cattle production ranges from intensive farms on fertile lands to extensive range lands. With the increase in human population and increase in affordability of meat-based food, the demand for beef cattle is also increasing

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. ¿Mining¿ refers to the excavation of economically important resources from terrestrial landmasses, thereby generating a large quantity of valuable precursors for commercial and industrial activities. Mineral products such as coal, aluminum, copper, iron, gold, and mineral sand are examples from the mining industry. Though mining advances global economic prosperity, this industry severely disturbs the land, water resources, and the environment (Figure 4.1). Mined waste materials such as tailings, subsoils, oxidized wastes, and fireclay are the main causes for land disturbance. Presence of potentially hazardous substances such as heavy metals in elevated concentrations in the mined waste materials has caused land contamination. Poor soil characteristics such as low-level organic matter and poor soil texture and structure have resulted in deterioration of the land, adversely affecting the establishment of plants and soil microbial flora and fauna (Boyer et al. 2011, Johnson 2003, Larney and Angers 2012, Sopper 1992). Disturbed mine sites are known to contaminate water resources 60 61in many countries, mainly from acid mine drainage (Bolan et al. 2003, Lindsay et al. 2015, Taylor et al. 1997). Therefore, these sites need to be rehabilitated to minimize potential environmental consequences, thereby enhancing their utilization. Revegetation of mine sites is one of the potential strategies that can be applied to improve these disturbed land masses. Here, infertile soil properties are improved by a series of processes such as land application of biowastes

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Soils are a prime and very important natural resource, and soil fertility is a major concern for sustainable agriculture and economic development of any country. In recent decades, problems of contaminated land sites, water bodies, groundwater, and air worldwide have increased manyfold due to anthropogenic activities. Mining is one of the anthropogenic activities that cause pollution problems in, around, and outside of mining areas. It results in the mobilization of metals and organic and inorganic substances into the environment, which causes pollution of air, soils, sediments, vegetation, and surface and groundwater. It also increases the morbidity and mortality of plant and animal species and results in the loss of visual, aesthetic characteristics of landscapes (Bolan et al. 2003; Pavli et al. 2015)

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Degradation of land resources as a result of mining activities poses serious threat to the environment. It has been estimated that around 0.4 × 106 km2 area of land is impacted by mining activities around the world (Hooke and Martín-Duque 2012). Unfortunately, a significant percentage of this area has never been reclaimed, which poses health risks to ecosystems and humans. Often, these wastes contain hazardous substances such as heavy metals, organic contaminants, radionuclides, and crushed limestone, where the latter could become a potential source of atmospheric CO2 emission. Thus, they not only pose serious risk to the groundwater and surface water, but also to the atmosphere (Wijesekara et al. 2016). In order to tackle the issues related to mine wastes and manage the affected sites sustainably, an appropriate physical, chemical, and biological characterization of waste materials becomes very prudent. Due to the lack of both above- and below-ground biodiversity, mine waste sites are very poor in organic matter content. This in return leads to poor seed germination, plant growth, and vegetation establishment. In many cases, the associated toxic contaminants also seriously compromise the soil health, microbial life, and plant growth (Castillejo and Castelló 2010, Larney and Angers 2012). This chapter describes the physicochemical characteristics of mine wastes, including spoil, tailings, and overburden, by underpinning their source-property relationships. The value of readily available biowaste resources, including biosolids, composts, and manures, in improving such physicochemical properties of mining-impacted soils/sites is also discussed

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Historically, mining of metalliferous ore bodies was a relatively dispersed activity, with numerous small mines occurring throughout many western countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia (Soucek et al. 2000, Grant et al. 2002, Mayes et al. 2009). Many metalliferous mine sites began operation in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and were abandoned in most instances before the environmental movement in Western countries. As such, there was very little recognition of the potential impacts caused by the dispersal of metal toxicants such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) into the surrounding environments from these sites. Many of these contaminants are cariogenic in humans (e.g., As), cause a range of human health-related impacts (Pb, Cd), and are toxic to ecological receptors in nearby streams and surrounding terrestrial environments (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni). As a result of the lack of regard for potential impacts, much of the mining waste was discarded carelessly throughout mining sites, and in some cases, directly into nearby watercourses

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. In the era of global competition, mineral exploitation has been significantly increased resulting in pressure on the environment in the form of massive deforestation, soil pollution, and erosion. Despite global economic importance, mineral industries have adversely affected the ecosystems across the world. The impact of mine waste in soil depends on its type and composition, commodity being mined, type of ore, and technologies used to process the ore. Mining types and activities are several, which include surface mining, underground mining, openpit mining, in situ mining, pillar mining, slope mining, block caving, and quarrying. And thus mine waste materials vary in their physical and chemical composition and potential for soil contamination. The different 96types of mine waste materials are overburden, waste rock, tailings, slags, mine water, sludge, and gaseous wastes. Overburden includes the soil and rock that are removed to gain access to the ore deposits at openpit mines. It is usually dumped on the surface at mine sites where it will not hinder further expansion of the mining operation. Waste rock contains minerals in concentrations considered too low to be extracted at a profit. It is often stored in heaps on the mine site. Tailings are finely ground rock and mineral waste products of mineral processing operations. They also contain leftover processing chemicals, and usually are deposited in the form of water-based slurry into tailings ponds. Slags are nonmetallic by-products from metal smelting. Mine water is produced in a number of ways at mine sites and varies in its quality and potential for environmental contamination. Sludge is produced at active water treatment plants used at some mine sites and consists of the solids that have been removed from the water as well as any chemicals. Gaseous wastes are produced during high-temperature chemical processing such as smelting, and consist of particulate matter and oxides of sulfur

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Acid mine drainage (AMD) from both active and abandoned mine sites is a major environmental issue for the mining industry in environmentally concerned regions of the world (Gray 1997, Lindsay et al. 2015). The term is used to describe any seepage, leachate, or drainage affected by the oxidation products of sulfide minerals in mine sites when exposed to air and water (Figure 3.1). Both chemical reactions and biological transformations are recognized as being responsible for generating AMD (Lindsay et al. 2015). AMD is typically characterized by low pH and high levels of dissolved metal salts, as well as high concentrations of acidity, sulfate, iron, and other metals (Gray 1997). Once the AMD process begins, it is difficult to control, often accelerates, and is likely to persist for decades or centuries. In the absence of natural or added neutralizing materials 34(carbonate minerals such as calcite or dolomite), the AMD is likely to contain toxic levels of heavy metals such as Fe, Al, Mn, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd, which can cause serious environmental problems in soil and water systems (Sengupta 1994)

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Spoil to Soil: Mine Site Rehabilitation and Revegetation presents both fundamental and practical aspects of remediation and revegetation of mine sites. Through three major themes, it examines characterization of mine site spoils; remediation of chemical, physical and biological constraints of mine site spoils, including post mine-site land-use practices; and revegetation of remediated mine site spoils. Each theme includes chapters featuring case studies involving mine sites around the world. The final section focuses specifically on case studies with successful mine site rehabilitation. The book provides a narrative of how inert spoil can be converted to live soil. Instructive illustrations show mine sites before and after rehabilitation. The purpose of this book is to provide students, scientists, and professional personnel in the mining industry sensible, science-based information needed to rehabilitate sustainably areas disturbed by mining activities. This book is suitable for undergraduate and graduate students majoring in environmental, earth, and soil sciences; environmental and soil scientists; and mine site environmental engineers and regulators

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. ¿Mining¿ refers to the excavation of economically important resources from terrestrial landmasses, thereby generating a large quantity of valuable precursors for commercial and industrial activities. Mineral products such as coal, aluminum, copper, iron, gold, and mineral sand are examples from the mining industry. Though mining advances global economic prosperity, this industry severely disturbs the land, water resources, and the environment (Figure 4.1). Mined waste materials such as tailings, subsoils, oxidized wastes, and fireclay are the main causes for land disturbance. Presence of potentially hazardous substances such as heavy metals in elevated concentrations in the mined waste materials has caused land contamination. Poor soil characteristics such as low-level organic matter and poor soil texture and structure have resulted in deterioration of the land, adversely affecting the establishment of plants and soil microbial flora and fauna (Boyer et al. 2011, Johnson 2003, Larney and Angers 2012, Sopper 1992). Disturbed mine sites are known to contaminate water resources 60 61in many countries, mainly from acid mine drainage (Bolan et al. 2003, Lindsay et al. 2015, Taylor et al. 1997). Therefore, these sites need to be rehabilitated to minimize potential environmental consequences, thereby enhancing their utilization. Revegetation of mine sites is one of the potential strategies that can be applied to improve these disturbed land masses. Here, infertile soil properties are improved by a series of processes such as land application of biowastes

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Soils are a prime and very important natural resource, and soil fertility is a major concern for sustainable agriculture and economic development of any country. In recent decades, problems of contaminated land sites, water bodies, groundwater, and air worldwide have increased manyfold due to anthropogenic activities. Mining is one of the anthropogenic activities that cause pollution problems in, around, and outside of mining areas. It results in the mobilization of metals and organic and inorganic substances into the environment, which causes pollution of air, soils, sediments, vegetation, and surface and groundwater. It also increases the morbidity and mortality of plant and animal species and results in the loss of visual, aesthetic characteristics of landscapes (Bolan et al. 2003; Pavli et al. 2015)

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Degradation of land resources as a result of mining activities poses serious threat to the environment. It has been estimated that around 0.4 × 106 km2 area of land is impacted by mining activities around the world (Hooke and Martín-Duque 2012). Unfortunately, a significant percentage of this area has never been reclaimed, which poses health risks to ecosystems and humans. Often, these wastes contain hazardous substances such as heavy metals, organic contaminants, radionuclides, and crushed limestone, where the latter could become a potential source of atmospheric CO2 emission. Thus, they not only pose serious risk to the groundwater and surface water, but also to the atmosphere (Wijesekara et al. 2016). In order to tackle the issues related to mine wastes and manage the affected sites sustainably, an appropriate physical, chemical, and biological characterization of waste materials becomes very prudent. Due to the lack of both above- and below-ground biodiversity, mine waste sites are very poor in organic matter content. This in return leads to poor seed germination, plant growth, and vegetation establishment. In many cases, the associated toxic contaminants also seriously compromise the soil health, microbial life, and plant growth (Castillejo and Castelló 2010, Larney and Angers 2012). This chapter describes the physicochemical characteristics of mine wastes, including spoil, tailings, and overburden, by underpinning their source-property relationships. The value of readily available biowaste resources, including biosolids, composts, and manures, in improving such physicochemical properties of mining-impacted soils/sites is also discussed

© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. While landfilling provides a simple and economic means of waste disposal, it causes environmental impacts including leachate generation and greenhouse gas emissions. Increasingly, revegetation is practiced on traditionally managed landfill sites to mitigate environmental degradation. It also provides a source of biomass for energy production. Biomass from landfill sites can be converted to bioenergy through biochemical and thermochemical processes. Selection of suitable biomass-producing plants (high-yielding crops), pretreatments (e.g., removal of lignin) and providing ideal conditions for the conversion processes (e.g., temperature and pressure) influence the quantity and quality of energy generated. This chapter provides an overview of the potential volumes of biomass produced from landfills and the various methods of biomass energy conversion.

With increasing demand for world water supply, wastewater reuse is a great opportunity to meet the water need, especially for agricultural and industrial development. Wastewater originates from many sources and hence its composition differs from origin and treatment processes. Wastewater rich in organic matter acts as a soil conditioner, thereby enhancing soil health. Wastewater also acts as a source of nutrient input in agriculture which in turn can reduce, or even eliminate the need for commercial fertilisers. However, wastewater usage in agriculture poses several threats like eutrophication, salinity, toxic chemicals (heavy metal(loids), pesticides), pathogen contamination, and most notably, nutrient leaching, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. These threats affect public health, soil and ground water resources, environment, crop quality, ecological, and property values. Biological degradation of the organic matter present in wastewater is considered one of the anthropogenic sources of major GHGs (carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4). In this paper, an overview of various sources of wastewater, effects of wastewater application on GHG emission from soil, and the strategies to mitigate wastewater-induced GHG emission from soils is presented. © 2012 WIT Press.

© 2018 Elsevier Ltd The increased use of estuarine waters for commercial and recreational activities is one consequence of urbanisation. Western Australia's Peel-Harvey Estuary highlights the impacts of urbanisation, with a rapidly developing boating industry and periodic dredging activity. The aim of this research is to evaluate the potential mobility of nutrients and trace elements during dredging, and the influence of flocculation on iron and sulfur partitioning in iron monosulfide enriched sediments. Our findings indicate a short-term increase in nitrate, phosphate and ammonium, during dredging through the resuspension of sediments. However, no increase in metal mobilisation during dredging was observed except copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn). Flocculant addition increased the release of nutrients, zinc (Zn) and arsenic (As) from sediments, had no effect on acid volatile sulfides and pyritic sulfur, but corresponded with an initial sharp rise in elemental sulfur concentrations. The run-off water from geofabric bags should be treated to decrease the concentrations of Zn and As to their background levels before releases into the estuary. Long-term impact of dredging on organic matter mineralisation and its subsequent effect on nutrients and trace elements dynamics needs further investigation.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd Shooting range soils contain mixed heavy metal contaminants including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and zinc (Zn). Phosphate (P) compounds have been used to immobilize these metals, particularly Pb, thereby reducing their bioavailability. However, research on immobilization of Pb's co-contaminants showed the relative importance of soluble and insoluble P compounds, which is critical in evaluating the overall success of in situ stabilization practice in the sustainable remediation of mixed heavy metal contaminated soils. Soluble synthetic P fertilizer (diammonium phosphate; DAP) and reactive (Sechura; SPR) and unreactive (Christmas Island; CPR) natural phosphate rocks (PR) were tested for Cd, Pb and Zn immobilization and later their mobility and bioavailability in a shooting range soil. The addition of P compounds resulted in the immobilization of Cd, Pb and Zn by 1.56¿76.2%, 3.21¿83.56%, and 2.31¿74.6%, respectively. The reactive SPR significantly reduced Cd, Pb and Zn leaching while soluble DAP increased their leachate concentrations. The SPR reduced the bioaccumulation of Cd, Pb and Zn in earthworms by 7.13¿23.4% and 14.3¿54.6% in comparison with earthworms in the DAP and control treatment, respectively. Bioaccessible Cd, Pb and Zn concentrations as determined using a simplified bioaccessibility extraction test showed higher long-term stability of P-immobilized Pb and Zn than Cd. The differential effect of P-induced immobilization between P compounds and metals is due to the variation in the solubility characteristics of P compounds and nature of metal phosphate compounds formed. Therefore, Pb and Zn immobilization by P compounds is an effective long-term remediation strategy for mixed heavy metal contaminated soils.

© 2015, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Co-composting biowastes such as manures and biosolids can be used to stabilize carbon (C) without impacting the quality of these biowastes. This study investigated the effect of co-composting biowastes with alkaline materials on C stabilization and monitored the fertilization and revegetation values of these co-composts. The stabilization of C in biowastes (poultry manure and biosolids) was examined by their composting in the presence of various alkaline amendments (lime, fluidized bed boiler ash, flue gas desulphurization gypsum, and red mud) for 6¿months in a controlled environment. The effects of co-composting on the biowastes¿ properties were assessed for different physical C fractions, microbial biomass C, priming effect, potentially mineralizable nitrogen, bioavailable phosphorus, and revegetation of an urban landfill soil. Co-composting biowastes with alkaline materials increased C stabilization, attributed to interaction with alkaline materials, thereby protecting it from microbial decomposition. The co-composted biowastes also increased the fertility of the landfill soil, thereby enhancing its revegetation potential. Stabilization of biowastes using alkaline materials through co-composting maintains their fertilization value in terms of improving plant growth. The co-composted biowastes also contribute to long-term soil C sequestration and reduction of bioavailability of heavy metals.

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. Two experiments were conducted where three biochars, made from macadamia nutshell (MS), hardwood shaving (WS) and chicken litter (CL), were co-composted with chicken manure and sawdust, and also incubated with a chicken litter based commercial compost. Biochars were added at the rates of 5% and 10% in the co-composting and 10% and 20% in the incubation experiment. The rates of biochar had no consistent effect on the change in element contents of composted- or incubated-biochars. The biochar C demonstrated recalcitrance in both composting and incubation systems. Composting increased the CEC of biochars probably due to thermophilic oxidation. The increases in CEC of WS and CL were 6.5 and 2.2 times, respectively, for composting. Translocation of elements, between biochar and compost medium, occurred in both directions. In most cases, biochars gained elements under the influence of positive difference of concentrations (i.e., when compost medium had higher concentration of elements than biochar), while in some cases they lost elements despite a positive difference. Biochar lost some elements (WS: B; CL: B, Mg and S) under the influence of negative difference of concentrations. Some biochars showed strong affinity for B, C, N and S: the concentration of these elements gained by biochars surpassed the concentration in the respective composting medium. The material difference in the biochars did not have influence on N retention: all three netbag-biochars increased their N content. The cost of production of biochar-compost will be lower in co-composting than incubation, which involves two separate processes, i.e., composting and subsequent incubation.

© 2016, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) deposition are important drivers of global climate change, but their effects on litter decomposition remain unclear in the subtropical regions. We investigated the influences of N, S, and their interactions on the decomposition of 13C-labeled Pinus massoniana leaf litter. An orthogonal experiment with three levels of N (0, 81, and 270¿mg N¿kg-1 soil) and S (0, 121, and 405¿mg S¿kg-1 soil) was conducted. We traced the incorporation of 13C-litter into carbon dioxide (CO2), dissolved organic C (DOC), and microbial phospholipids. Over the 420-day incubation, litter decomposition did not respond to low N and S additions but increased under high levels and combined amendments (NS). However, litter-derived CO2 emissions were enhanced during the first 56¿days, with a positive interaction of N × S. N additions promoted fungal growth, while S stimulated growth of Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, and actinobacteria. Increased decomposition was related to higher litter-derived DOC and fungi/bacteria ratio. Inversely, N and/or S amendments inhibited decomposition (N > NS > S) from day 57 afterwards, possibly due to C limitation and decreased abundances of Gram-negative bacteria and actinobacteria. These results suggested that N deposition interacted with S to affect litter decomposition, and this effect depended on N and S deposition levels and litter decomposition stage.

© 2015 Elsevier B.V. Regular application of phosphate (P) fertilisers has been identified as the main source of heavy metal(loid) contamination including cadmium (Cd) in agricultural soils. Some of these P fertilisers that act as a source of Cd contamination of soils have also been found to act as a sink for the immobilisation of this metal(loid). In paddy soils, redox reactions play an important role in the (im)mobilisation of nutrients and heavy metal(loid)s, as a result of flooding of the rice plains. Although a number of studies have examined the potential value of P compounds in the immobilisation of metals in contaminated soils, there has been no comprehensive review on the mechanisms involved in the P-induced (im)mobilisation of Cd in paddy soils. There are a number of factors that influences P induced Cd (im)mobilisation in paddy soils that include pH, redox reactions, liming effect, rhizosphere acidification and root iron plaques. Following a brief overview of the reactions of Cd and common P compounds that are used as fertiliser in soils, the review focuses on the above mentioned mechanisms for the (im)mobilisation of Cd by P compounds in paddy soils. The role of iron plaques on Cd status in soil and rice plants is also discussed followed by a summary and future research needs.

© 2016 by the authors. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of fertilizer application on heterotrophic soil respiration (Rh) in soil respiration (Rs) components in red pine stands. Two types of fertilizer (N3P4K1 = 113:150:37 kg·ha-1·year-1; P4K1 = 150:37 kg·ha-1·year-1) were applied manually on the forest floor for two years. Rs and Rh rates were monitored from April 2011 to March 2013. Mean Rs and Rh rates were not significantly affected by fertilizer applications. However, Rh in the second year following fertilizer application fell to 27% for N3P4K1 and 17% in P4K1 treatments, while there was an increase of 5% in the control treatments compared with the first fertilization year. The exponential relationships between Rs or Rh rates and the corresponding soil temperature were significant (Rh: R2 = 0.86-0.90; p < 0.05; Rs: R2 = 0.86-0.91; p < 0.05) in the fertilizer and control treatments. Q10 values (Rs increase per 10°C increase in temperature) in Rs rates were lowest for the N3P4K1 treatment (3.47), followed by 3.62 for the P4K1 treatment and 3.60 in the control treatments, while Rh rates were similar among the treatments (3.59-3.64). The results demonstrate the importance of separating Rh rates from Rs rates following a compound fertilizer application.

© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Arsenic (As) contamination of groundwater reservoirs is a global environmental and health issue given to its toxic and carcinogenic nature. Over 170 million people have been affected by As due to the ingestion of As-contaminated groundwater. Conventional methods such as reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and electrodialysis are commonly used for the remediation of As-contaminated water; however, the high cost and sludge production put limitations on their application to remove As from water. This review critically addresses the use of various agricultural waste materials (e.g., sugarcane bagasse, peels of various fruits, wheat straw) as biosorbents, thereby offering an eco-friendly and low-cost solution for the removal of As from contaminated water supplies. The effect of solution chemistry such as solution pH, cations, anions, organic ligands, and various other factors (e.g., temperature, contact time, sorbent dose) on As biosorption, and safe disposal methods for As-loaded biosorbents to reduce secondary As contamination are also discussed.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. The stabilisation of Pb in the soil by phosphate is influenced by environmental conditions and physicochemical properties of the soils to which it is applied. Stabilisation of Pb by phosphate was examined in four soils under different environmental conditions.The effect of soil moisture and temperature on stabilisation of Pb by phosphate was examined by measurement of water extractable and bioaccessible Pb, sequential fractionation and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The addition of humic acid, ammonium nitrate and chloride was also examined for inhibition or improvement of Pb stability with phosphate treatment.The effect of moisture level varied between soils. In soil MB and DA a soil moisture level of 50% water holding capacity was sufficient to maximise stabilisation of Pb, but in soil TV and PE reduction in bioaccessible Pb was inhibited at this moisture level. Providing moisture at twice the soil water holding capacity did not enhance the effect of phosphate on Pb stabilisation. The difference of Pb stability as a result of incubating phosphate treated soils at 18 °C and 37 °C was relatively small. However wet-dry cycles decreased the effectiveness of phosphate treatment. The reduction in bioaccessible Pb obtained was between 20 and 40% with the most optimal treatment conditions. The reduction in water extractable Pb by phosphate was substantial regardless of incubation conditions and the effect of different temperature and soil moisture regimes was not significant.Selective sequential extraction showed phosphate treatment converted Pb in fraction 1 (exchangeable, acid and water soluble) to fraction 2 (reducible). There were small difference in fraction 4 (residual) Pb and fraction 1 as a result of treatment conditions. X-ray absorption spectroscopy of stabilised PE soil revealed small differences in Pb speciation under varying soil moisture and temperature treatments. The addition of humic acid and chloride produced the greatest effect on Pb speciation in phosphate treated soils.

© 2016 Elsevier LtdThe alkaline residue generated from the production of soda ash using the ammonia-soda method has been successfully used in removing phosphorus (P) from aqueous solution. But the accumulation of P-containing solid after P removal is an undesirable menace to the environment. To achieve the goal of recycling, this study explored the feasibility of reusing the P loaded alkaline residue as an amendment for immobilization of lead (Pb) in a shooting range soil. The main crystalline phase and micromorphology of amendments were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy-electron dispersion spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) methods. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), sequential extraction procedure, and physiologically based extraction test (PBET) were employed to evaluate the effectiveness of Pb immobilization in soil after 45¿d incubation. Treatment with P loaded alkaline residue was significantly effective in reducing the TCLP and PBET extractable Pb concentrations in contrast to the untreated soil. Moreover, a positive change in the distribution of Pb fractions was observed in the treated soil, i.e., more than 60% of soil-Pb was transformed to the residual fraction compared to the original soil. On the other hand, P loaded amendments also resulted in a drastic reduction in phytoavailable Pb to the winter wheat and a mild release of P as a nutrient in treated soil, which also confirmed the improvement of soil quality.

© 2016, The Author(s). This study evaluated the effects of abattoir wastewater irrigation on plant growth and development. The soils used in this study were collected from Primo Smallgoods Abattoir (Port Wakefield, South Australia) at different sites such as currently irrigated (CI), currently not irrigated (CNI) and soil outside the irrigation area as control (CTRL). A completely randomised block design was employed for the plant growth experiment, where four crops (Pennisetum purpureum, Medicago sativa, Sinapis alba and Helianthus annuus) were grown separately on three different soils (CI, CNI and CTRL) in plastic pots. Two types of water (tap water and wastewater) and two loadings were applied throughout the planting period based on the field capacity (FC 100 and 150¿%). The overall dry matter yield was compared between the soils and treatments. Under wastewater irrigation, among the four species grown in the CI soil, P. purpureum (171¿g) and H. annuus (151¿g) showed high biomass yields, followed by S. alba (115¿g) and M. sativa (31¿g). The plants grown under tap water showed about 70¿% lower yields compared to the abattoir wastewater irrigation (AWW). Similar trends in the biomass yields were observed for CNI and CTRL soils under the two water treatments, with the biomass yields in the following order CI > CNI > CTRL soils. The results confirm the beneficial effects of AWW at the greenhouse level. However, a proper cropping pattern and wastewater irrigation management plan is essential to utilise the nutrients available in the wastewater-irrigated land treatment sites. The increase in fertility is evident from the effects of wastewater on biomass growth and also the abundance of nutrients accumulated in plants. A mass balance calculation on the applied, residual and the plant-accumulated nutrients over a few cropping periods will help us in understanding the nutrient cycling processes involved in the abattoir-irrigated land treatment sites, which will serve as an effective tool for the environmental management.

© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural operations continue to increase. Carbon (C)-enriched char materials like biochar have been described as a mitigation strategy. Utilization of biochar material as a soil amendment has been demonstrated to provide potentially greater soil GHG suppression due to its interactions in the soil system. However, these effects are variable and the duration of the impact remains uncertain. Various (nano)materials can be used to modify chars to obtain surface functionality to mitigate GHG emissions. This review critically focusses on the innovative methodologies for improving char efficiency, underpinning GHG mitigation and C sequestration.

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. Heavy metals such as chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As) occur in ionic form in soil, with chromate [Cr(VI)] and arsenate As(V) being the most pre-dominant forms. The application of biochar to Cr(VI) and As(V) spiked and field contaminated soils was evaluated on the reduction processes [(Cr(VI) to Cr(III)] and [As(V) to As(III))], and subsequent mobility and bioavailability of both As(V) and Cr(VI). The assays used in this study included leaching, soil microbial activity and XPS techniques. The reduction rate of As(V) was lower than that of Cr(VI) with and without biochar addition, however, supplementation with biochar enhanced the reduction process of As(V). Leaching experiments indicated Cr(VI) was more mobile than As(V). Addition of biochar reversed the effect by reducing the mobility of Cr and increasing that of As. The presence of Cr and As in both spiked and contaminated soils reduced microbial activity, but with the addition of biochar to these soils, the microbial activity increased in the Cr(VI) contaminated soils, while it was further decreased with As(V) contaminated soils. The addition of biochar was effective in mitigating Cr toxicity by reducing Cr(VI) to Cr(III). In contrast, the conversion process of As(V) to As(III) hastened by biochar was not favourable, as As(III) is more toxic in soils. Overall, the presence of functional groups on biochar promotes reduction by providing the electrons required for reduction processes to occur as determined by XPS data.

© 2016 Elsevier B.V. Soil clay minerals significantly influence the accumulation and stabilization of organic carbon (OC). However, the effect of interactions among phyllosilicate clay minerals, native OC and sesquioxides (Fe/Al oxides) on the adsorption-desorption of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) under different background electrolyte types and concentration is poorly understood. A set of batch adsorption-desorption experiments were conducted using pedogenic clays extracted from soils dominated by kaolinite-illite (Kaol-Ill), smectite (Smec) and allophane (Allo). The clay samples were sequentially treated to remove native OC and sesquioxides, and tested for adsorption-desorption of DOC under various solution conditions. All the experiments were conducted at pH 7 using water extractable fraction of OC from wheat residues. DOC adsorption increased with increasing background electrolyte concentration, and the presence of Ca2+ significantly enhanced the uptake in comparison to Na+ due to a possible cationic bridging effect. Under all electrolyte conditions, the maximum DOC adsorption capacity (Qmax) (mg g-1) of the soil clay fractions (SCF) maintained the order: Allo > Smec > Kaol-Ill. A similar order was also observed when the adsorption capacities were normalized to the specific surface area (SSA) of the SCFs (mg m-2). DOC adsorption showed a positive relationship with SSA, and sesquioxides and allophanic minerals provided the largest contributions to the SSA in the SCF. Removal of sesquioxides from the SCF resulted in a decrease in SSA and thus DOC adsorption, whereas removal of native OC increased the SSA and subsequent DOC adsorption. Because this study used pedogenic SCFs which represented soils formed in different environments instead of processed clays from geological deposits, it provided realistic information about the interaction of DOC with SCF in relation to their native OC and sesquioxide contents. It also revealed the importance of Ca2+ in enhancing the carbon adsorption capacities of these SCFs.

White leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei.) farming effluent contains pollutants that include high levels of organic matter (OM) nutrients and growth- promoting substances. This study investigated the effects of varied concentrations of white leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannameij farm wastewater 0, 50, 75 and 100%, on the survival rate (SR) of three finfish species: tilapia fOreochromis niloticusj, grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) and rabbit fish (Siganus guttatus.) as part of screening their potential in removing organic matter from the effluent of white leg shrimp farming. The different initial levels of shrimp wastewater from 50% to 100% had no significant effect on the survival rate of tilapia and mullet; but the survival rate of S. guttatus significantly decreased with increasing shrimp wastewater (P < 0.05). The results showed that the removal of BOD, COD and TSS occurred in the range of 66-83, 68-81 and 30-54%; respectively and the removal efficiency of OM by mullet was higher than Tilapia in all treatments. The study also indicated that the reduction highest removal of BOD, COD and TSS was achieved being 83.1%, 80.7and 53,7% respectively, at the medium stocking density (25 fish/m2) of mullet.

© 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V. Heavy metal contamination in rice paddies is a serious problem in monsoon Asia, and these fields require appropriate restoration measures. Although soil washing is a promising remediation technology, high cost for the treatment on soil washing leachate (wastewater) is one of the critical problems. This study sought to develop a simple method for the restoration of paddy fields by soil washing, with simplified wastewater treatment. Ferric chloride solution (FeCl3) was used as a washing chemical to extract Cd from a soil, which produced the wastewater containing Cd and other metals. Three alkali materials (NaOH, MgO, and CaCO3) were tested to treat the wastewater and determined MgO is optimal. In an on-site experiment, the target pH for wastewater treatment was controlled between 8 and 9 by using MgO. All metals in the wastewater could be effectively removed, reaching levels substantially lower than those permitted by Japanese standards. The treated wastewater could be discharged to agricultural canal. Therefore, our novel simplified method effectively removed heavy metals from the wastewater produced by on-site soil washing and contribute drive down the cost.

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland Background and aims: Soil amendments are often added to polluted soils to increase phytoremediation efficiency. Here we investigated the potential of a range of organic amendments for phytoextraction of heavy metals in a contaminated sediment. Methods: Two experiments compared adsorption and phytoextraction of heavy metals by a Cd-hyperaccumulator Carpobrotus rossii grown in the contaminated sediment amended with six organic amendments. Results: The adsorption capacity as measured by Langmuir adsorption maximum followed the order of Cr > Zn > Cu > Cd, and the effect of organic amendments followed the order of chicken manure > cow manure > brown coal > golden wattle biochar > blue gum biochar > radiata pine biochar. The addition of amendments increased the adsorption of heavy metals, with brown coal resulting in the lowest concentrations of water-extractable Cd, Cu and Zn. Two manures resulted in the highest concentrations of these water-extractable heavy metals in the rhizosphere soil of C. rossii. Furthermore, brown coal resulted in higher shoot accumulation of these heavy metals than three wood-derived biochars, whilst the manures generally had the lowest accumulation of Cd and Cu although they increased shoot biomass. Conclusions: The addition of brown coal decreased whereas manure addition increased the mobility (water-extractable fraction) of heavy metals in rhizosphere soil. Phytoextraction of Cd and Cu was greater with brown coal than with biochars or manures. Brown coal is suitable for enhancing phytoextraction of these heavy metals because it could increase their accumulation in shoots of C. rossii and decrease the risk of leaching of these heavy metals into groundwater.

© 2015 British Society of Soil Science. Changes in agricultural management strategies have received much attention in recent years with a view to increasing or maintaining the amount of carbon (C) sequestered as soil organic C (SOC). In many parts of the world, minimum or no-till management has been promoted as a means of improving soil quality, reducing losses of erosion and potentially increasing SOC stocks. However, no-till systems can become problematic and potentially disease-prone, especially due to high crop residue loadings. Consequently, residue removal either by harvesting or burning off may be employed to reduce these pressures. Here, we examined the effect of crop residue removal on C storage in soil that had been under no-till management for 20 yr. We predicted improved physical properties (i.e. lower bulk density) and greater microbial activity under the residue retention soils due to greater readily available C and nutrients derived from crop residues. In contrast, we predicted relative reductions in SOC in the no residue soils due to a lack of available residue-derived C for microbial use. Residue removal caused a relative C loss from the soil, which was related to C input, amount of nutrient availability and microbial activity. We demonstrate the importance of maintaining crop residue cover in no-till cropping systems for soil function and highlight the potentially deleterious effects of changing management strategy to increased residue harvesting or removal by burning.

The sorption of chromium (Cr) species to soil has become the focus of research as it dictates the bioavailability and also the magnitude of toxicity of Cr. The sorption of two environmentally important Cr species [Cr(III) and Cr(VI)] was examined using batch sorption, and the data were fitted to Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms. The effects of soil properties such as pH, CEC, organic matter (OM), clay, water-extractable SO42- and PO43-, surface charge, and different iron (Fe) fractions of 12 different Australian representative soils on the sorption, and mobility of Cr(III) and Cr(VI) were examined. The amount of sorption as shown by K f was higher for Cr(III) than Cr(VI) in all tested soils. Further, the amount of Cr(III) sorbed increased with an increase in pH, CEC, clay, and OM of soils. Conversely, the chemical properties of soil such as positive charge and Fe (crystalline) had a noticeable influence on the sorption of Cr(VI). Desorption of Cr(VI) occurred rapidly and was greater than desorption of Cr(III) in soils. The mobility of Cr species as estimated by the retardation factor was higher for Cr(VI) than for Cr(III) in all tested soils. These results concurred with the results from leaching experiments which showed higher leaching of Cr(VI) than Cr(III) in both acidic and alkaline soils indicating the higher mobility of Cr(VI) in a wide range of soils. This study demonstrated that Cr(VI) is more mobile and will be bioavailable in soils regardless of soil properties and if not remediated may eventually pose a severe threat to biota. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

This study aims to examine the effectiveness of amendments for risk-based land management of shooting range soils and to explore the effectiveness of amendments applied to sites with differing soil physiochemical parameters. A series of amendments with differing mechanisms for stabilisation were applied to four shooting range soils and aged for 1¿year. Chemical stabilisation was monitored by pore water extraction, toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) and the physiologically based extraction test (PBET) over 1¿year. The performance of amendments when applied in conditions reflecting field application did not match the performance in the batch studies. Pore water-extractable metals were not greatly affected by amendment addition. TCLP-extractable Pb was reduced significantly by amendments, particularly lime and magnesium oxide. Antimony leaching was reduced by red mud but mobilised by some of the other amendments. Bioaccessible Pb measured by PBET shows that bioaccessible Pb increased with time after an initial decrease due to the presence of metallic fragments in the soil. Amendments were able to reduce bioaccessible Pb by up to 50¿%. Bioaccessible Sb was not readily reduced by soil amendments. Soil amendments were not equally effective across the four soils. © 2013 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Australia.

This study was conducted to evaluate the dynamics of soil respiration (total soil and heterotrophic respiration) following fertilizer application in red pine forests. Fertilizer (N:P:K = 113:150:37 kg/ha), which reflects current practices in Korean forest, was applied in April 2011, and total soil and heterotrophic respiration rates were monitored from April 2011 to March 2012. Monthly variation of total soil and heterotrophic respiration rates were similar between the fertilizer and control treatments, as soil temperature was the dominant factor controlling the both rates. Total soil respiration rates during the study period were not significantly different between the fertilizer (0.504 g CO2 m-2 h-1) and control (0.501 g CO2 m-2 h-1) treatments. However, the proportion of heterotrophic respiration was higher in the fertilizer (78% of total soil respiration rates) than in the control (62% of total soil respiration rates) treatments. These results suggest that current fertilizer practices in Korea forest soil do not substantially affect total soil respiration rates. © The Ecological Society of Korea.

Shooting ranges have come under increased scrutiny in recent years as a potential source of contamination owing to the high loading of lead in the soil. Stabilization by the addition of chemical amendments has been examined as a viable risk-based approach to managing shooting range contamination. Amendments have been shown to immobilize metals to varying degrees, determined by the target contaminant, the amendment used, soil properties, and the reaction kinetics in the contaminated soil and amendment system. Field scale evaluation of the effectiveness of chemical amendments for the stabilization of metal contaminants in shooting range soil is limited. Doubt remains over effectiveness and long-term stability under the varying conditions found in the field, which affect the kinetics of immobilization and dissolution in amended soil. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.

As land application becomes one of the important waste utilization and disposal practices, soil is increasingly being seen as a major source of metal(loid)s reaching food chain, mainly through plant uptake and animal transfer. With greater public awareness of the implications of contaminated soils on human and animal health there has been increasing interest in developing technologies to remediate contaminated sites. Bioremediation is a natural process which relies on soil microorganisms and higher plants to alter metal(loid) bioavailability and can be enhanced by addition of organic amendments to soils. Large quantities of organic amendments, such as manure compost, biosolid and municipal solid wastes are used as a source of nutrients and also as a conditioner to improve the physical properties and fertility of soils. These organic amendments that are low in metal(loid)s can be used as a sink for reducing the bioavailability of metal(loid)s in contaminated soils and sediments through their effect on the adsorption, complexation, reduction and volatilization of metal(loid)s. This review examines the mechanisms for the enhanced bioremediation of metal(loid)s by organic amendments and discusses the practical implications in relation to sequestration and bioavailability of metal(loid)s in soils. © 2010 Elsevier B.V.

The effluents derived from agricultural industries are major sources of wastewater with significant amounts of nutrients and organic load. Australia's agricultural industries have experienced rapid growth in recent years, with nearly 152 abattoirs, 1798 wine industries, 9256 dairy farms and 1835 piggeries in operation. Agricultural industries require huge volumes of water for processing the farm products towards commercial value and quality. For instance, around 200 L of water required for processing a cattle in an abattoir; around 2.4-2.5 L for producing 1 L of wine; 500-800 L for 1 L of milk; and 12-45 L for sow and litter management in piggeries. As a result, these industries generate huge volumes of wastewater. For example, Australian meat industries produce an average of 4000 m3/day wastewater, with high concentration of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). The annual average N and P loads in some of the farm effluents are: abattoir - 722 and 722 t; winery - 280 and 280 t; dairy - 150000 and 110000 t; and piggery - 72895 and 5075t. With Australia's average fertiliser consumption being 1 Mt N and 0.5 Mt P, the huge amounts of N and P from the agricultural effluents can be re-used as a potential alternative for fertiliser usage. Sustainable management of nutrients in the wastewater irrigated soil is a critical step to prevent contamination of both surface and ground-water. The available technologies for wastewater treatment require high investment. Hence, using high biomass-producing plants (e.g., Pennisetum purpureum and Arundo donax) as remediators, which also has the potential to uptake high amount of nutrients and heavy metals, can serve as a cost effective technology. Consequently, the plants used not only act as remediators, but also provide biomass that can also be used for energy generation, paper production and as a feed for animals. © 2012 WIT Press.